{"id":4523,"date":"2026-08-21T17:15:03","date_gmt":"2026-08-21T15:15:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/?page_id=4523"},"modified":"2026-09-24T14:38:52","modified_gmt":"2026-09-24T12:38:52","slug":"table-of-contents","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/table-of-contents\/","title":{"rendered":"Table of Contents"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><strong>Highlighting and notes:<\/strong> Select a passage with the mouse or your finger and tap \u201cHighlight\u201d or \u201cNote\u201d. This works on every page of this site, including the text of the <em>Groundlines<\/em>. Your highlights stay in your own browser only; \u201cMy notes\u201d at the bottom right shows them all at a glance, saves them as a file (\u201cExport\u201d) and reads them back in on another device (\u201cImport\u201d).<\/p>\n\n\n<div style=\"background-color: #f2f4f6; padding: 20px; border-radius: 8px; margin-bottom: 30px; border-left: 5px solid #abb7c2;\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #99a7af; margin-bottom: 5px;\">A. Introduction to the System (Phenomenology of Spirit)<\/p>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\" style=\"margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 10px;\">\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/phenomenology-of-spirit-1807-the-passages-cited\/\">The passages cited in the <em>Groundlines<\/em> (1807)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #99a7af; margin-bottom: 5px;\">B. Science of Logic<\/p>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\" style=\"margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 10px;\">\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/science-of-logic-the-passages-cited\/\">The passages cited in the <em>Groundlines<\/em> (1812\/1816)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #99a7af; margin-bottom: 5px;\">C. Philosophy of Nature<\/p>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\" style=\"margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 10px;\">\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/organic-physics-the-concept-of-life-enc-%c2%a7%c2%a7-337-376\/\">Organic Physics: the concept of life (Enc. \u00a7\u00a7 337\u2013376)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #99a7af; margin-bottom: 5px;\">D. Philosophy of Spirit<\/p>\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\" style=\"margin-top: 10px; color: #828f96;\">\n \t<li><mark class=\"has-inline-color\" style=\"background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0); color: #828f96;\">AA. Philosophy of Subjective Spirit<\/mark><\/li>\n \t<li>BB. <strong><em>Philosophy of Objective Spirit <\/em><\/strong>=&gt;\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n \t<li><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/objective-spirit-right-morality-ethical-life-enc-%c2%a7%c2%a7-483-552\/\">Objective Spirit: right, morality, ethical life (Enc. \u00a7\u00a7 483\u2013552)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-large-font-size\">Groundlines of the Philosophy of Right<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Preface<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Introduction (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/1\/\">1<\/a>\u201332)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The concept of the will, of freedom, and of right.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part One: Abstract Right (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/33\/\">33<\/a>\u2013104)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>First Section: Property (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/41\/\">41<\/a>\u201371)<\/li>\n<li>Second Section: Contract (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/72\/\">72<\/a>\u201381)<\/li>\n<li>Third Section: Wrong (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/82\/\">82<\/a>\u2013104)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part Two: Morality (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/105\/\">105<\/a>\u2013141)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>First Section: Purpose and Responsibility (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/115\/\">115<\/a>\u2013118)<\/li>\n<li>Second Section: Intention and Welfare (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/119\/\">119<\/a>\u2013128)<\/li>\n<li>Third Section: The Good and Conscience (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/129\/\">129<\/a>\u2013141)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part Three: Ethical Life (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/142\/\">142<\/a>\u2013360)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>First Section: The Family (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/158\/\">158<\/a>\u2013181)<\/li>\n<li>Second Section: Civil Society (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/182\/\">182<\/a>\u2013256)<\/li>\n<li>Third Section: The State (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/257\/\">257<\/a>\u2013360)<br>Internal Constitutional Law (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/260\/\">260<\/a>\u2013329)<br>External Constitutional Law (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/330\/\">330<\/a>\u2013340)<br>World History (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/341\/\">341<\/a>\u2013360)<br><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u25bc Click the headings below to open the details \u25bc<\/p>\n\n\n\n<details>\n<summary>I. Preface &amp; Introduction (Detailed)<\/summary>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/1\/\">\u00a7 1<\/a>:<\/strong> Determination of the subject matter: The philosophical science of right treats the Idea of right (the unity of the concept and its realization).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/2\/\">\u00a7 2<\/a>:<\/strong> Scientific method: Right is grasped not through definitions imposed from outside but through the immanent development of the concept (deduction).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/3\/\">\u00a7 3<\/a>:<\/strong> Positive law: The distinction between philosophical right and law, which derives its validity from historical circumstances, national character, and application.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/4\/\">\u00a7 4<\/a>:<\/strong> The ground of right: Freedom is the substance of the will; the system of right is the realm of realized freedom.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/5\/\">\u00a7 5<\/a>:<\/strong> First moment of the will (universality): The capacity of the I to abstract from every content (the negative freedom of emptiness).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/6\/\">\u00a7 6<\/a>:<\/strong> Second moment of the will (particularization): The transition to determinacy; the will posits for itself a concrete content (finitude).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/7\/\">\u00a7 7<\/a>:<\/strong> Third moment of the will (individuality): The unity of universality and particularity; the will remains with itself even in its determinacy.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/8\/\">\u00a7 8<\/a>:<\/strong> Formal determinacy: The will as self-consciousness encounters an external world and translates subjective purposes into objectivity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/9\/\">\u00a7 9<\/a>:<\/strong> The content of the will: The will determines itself; its content is a purpose for it (either as representation or as deed).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/10\/\">\u00a7 10<\/a>:<\/strong> The will in itself: In its mere immediacy the will is only the possibility of freedom (not yet in its truth).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/11\/\">\u00a7 11<\/a>:<\/strong> The natural will: Here the content appears as drives, desires, and inclinations, which the human being finds immediately present.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/12\/\">\u00a7 12<\/a>:<\/strong> The resolving will: Only by sublating the indeterminacy of the drives and making a decision does the will become an actual will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/13\/\">\u00a7 13<\/a>:<\/strong> The individuality of the individual: Through resolving, the will sets itself apart, as the willing of a determinate individual, from others.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/14\/\">\u00a7 14<\/a>:<\/strong> The finite will: The I stands reflectively above its content and is capable of choosing among the various drives.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/15\/\">\u00a7 15<\/a>:<\/strong> Arbitrary will (Willk\u00fcr): Freedom as mere choice between given contents; it is contingency and the contradiction of freedom.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/16\/\">\u00a7 16<\/a>:<\/strong> The one-sidedness of choice: Even the particular that is chosen remains something finite; through mere choosing the will does not attain true infinity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/17\/\">\u00a7 17<\/a>:<\/strong> The dialectic of the drives: The drives interfere with one another; the will must subordinate or sacrifice them without any fixed standard (arbitrarily).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/18\/\">\u00a7 18<\/a>:<\/strong> Judgment of nature: The drives are positive (good) as an expression of life, but negative (evil) as a limitation on spiritual freedom.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/19\/\">\u00a7 19<\/a>:<\/strong> The purification of the drives: The demand to free the drives from their natural determinacy and to organize them rationally.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/20\/\">\u00a7 20<\/a>:<\/strong> Happiness: Reflection compares the drives and gathers them into a whole of satisfaction (a universal end).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/21\/\">\u00a7 21<\/a>:<\/strong> The will that is free in and for itself: Freedom becomes its own object; thinking recognizes freedom as the essence of the will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/22\/\">\u00a7 22<\/a>:<\/strong> The infinity of the will: The will is truly infinite because its existence is its own inwardness (itself).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/23\/\">\u00a7 23<\/a>:<\/strong> True freedom: The will relates only to itself and is independent of any external dependency.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/24\/\">\u00a7 24<\/a>:<\/strong> Concrete universality: The will is the immanent Idea of self-consciousness, which reaches over and beyond its own determinations.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/25\/\">\u00a7 25<\/a>:<\/strong> Subjectivity: The will determined as pure I, as arbitrary will, or as the one-sided form of an unexecuted purpose.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/26\/\">\u00a7 26<\/a>:<\/strong> Objectivity: The will determined as a rational system, as immersion in its condition, or as external existence.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/27\/\">\u00a7 27<\/a>:<\/strong> The Idea of the will: The absolute determination of spirit is that its freedom becomes for it an objective, rational object.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/28\/\">\u00a7 28<\/a>:<\/strong> The realization of the Idea: The activity of the will dialectically sublates the contradiction between subjectivity and objectivity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/29\/\">\u00a7 29<\/a>:<\/strong> Definition of right: Every existence that is an existence of the free will is right (freedom as Idea).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/30\/\">\u00a7 30<\/a>:<\/strong> The sanctity of right: Right is sacred because it is the existence of freedom; more concrete stages of spirit carry a higher right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/31\/\">\u00a7 31<\/a>:<\/strong> The dialectic: The scientific method by which the concept organically brings forth its determinations out of itself.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/32\/\">\u00a7 32<\/a>:<\/strong> Concepts and shapes: The logical moments of the development appear in the world as a series of temporal shapes.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/33\/\">\u00a7 33<\/a>:<\/strong> Division of the work: The system is divided into: A. Abstract Right, B. Morality, C. Ethical Life (family, civil society, state).<\/p>\n\n\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n<details>\n<summary>II. Abstract Right (Detailed)<\/summary>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part One: Abstract Right (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/34\/\">34<\/a>\u2013104)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preliminary Concept: Personality (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/34\/\">34<\/a>\u201340)<\/h4>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/34\/\">\u00a7 34<\/a>:<\/strong> The will as individual: The free will here appears in its most immediate form, as abstract I.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/35\/\">\u00a7 35<\/a>:<\/strong> The person: The subject that knows itself as absolutely infinite and universal; the capacity to be a bearer of rights.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/36\/\">\u00a7 36<\/a>:<\/strong> The imperative of right: &#8216;Be a person and respect others as persons.&#8217; (A purely formal command.)<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/37\/\">\u00a7 37<\/a>:<\/strong> The separation of person and particularity: For right, it is initially irrelevant what talents or desires (content) the individual has.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/38\/\">\u00a7 38<\/a>:<\/strong> The thing: Everything that is not a person is something unfree, impersonal, and thus without rights.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/39\/\">\u00a7 39<\/a>:<\/strong> The necessity of embodiment: In order to be actual as a free person, the will must give itself an external sphere (a space in the world).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/40\/\">\u00a7 40<\/a>:<\/strong> Division of abstract right: A. Property, B. Contract, C. Wrong.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">I. Property (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/41\/\">41<\/a>\u201371)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A. The Concept of Property (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/41\/\">41<\/a>\u201353)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/41\/\">\u00a7 41<\/a>:<\/strong> The will places itself into a thing: possession becomes property through the recognition of the will within it.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/42\/\">\u00a7 42<\/a>:<\/strong> The thing as the external: Spirit is the inward, the thing is the absolutely external.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/43\/\">\u00a7 43<\/a>:<\/strong> Spiritual goods as things: talents, branches of knowledge, or inventions can, through externalization, become &#8216;things&#8217; that one can possess.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/44\/\">\u00a7 44<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of appropriation: the human being has the absolute right to appropriate every thing; nature has no will of its own against spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/45\/\">\u00a7 45<\/a>:<\/strong> Possession vs. property: possession is mere physical control (taking hold of something); property is the right to possession.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/46\/\">\u00a7 46<\/a>:<\/strong> Private property: since the person is a single individual, property too must essentially be private (individual).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/47\/\">\u00a7 47<\/a>:<\/strong> Immediate possession of the body: the human being is at first immediately conscious of his own body.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/48\/\">\u00a7 48<\/a>:<\/strong> Taking possession of the body: only through training and labor does spirit truly take possession of its own body.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/49\/\">\u00a7 49<\/a>:<\/strong> The distribution of property: abstract right demands no equality of possessions, only that everyone be able to possess property.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/50\/\">\u00a7 50<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of priority: whoever comes first has the right, since he is the first to place his will into the thing.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/51\/\">\u00a7 51<\/a>:<\/strong> Recognizability: taking possession must be visible to others as an expression of the will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/52\/\">\u00a7 52<\/a>:<\/strong> Form and matter: the will takes possession of the form of the thing; for right, matter is merely the bearer of this form.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B. The Modes of Taking Possession (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/53\/\">53<\/a>\u201358)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/53\/\">\u00a7 53<\/a>:<\/strong> Overview: taking possession occurs through direct physical seizure, through forming, or through mere marking.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/54\/\">\u00a7 54<\/a>:<\/strong> The act of the will: property is not merely a state but an ongoing relation of the will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/55\/\">\u00a7 55<\/a>:<\/strong> Physical seizure: the most direct form (holding something), but spatially very limited.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/56\/\">\u00a7 56<\/a>:<\/strong> Forming: working on a thing (e.g. agriculture or craft); the most spiritual mode of appropriation, since it leaves lasting traces.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/57\/\">\u00a7 57<\/a>:<\/strong> Disposal over living beings: animals are treated as things; slavery is a wrong, because the human being is in himself no thing.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/58\/\">\u00a7 58<\/a>:<\/strong> Marking: the most ideal form (a sign, a boundary stone); the will represents itself through a sign, without physically touching the thing.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C. The Use of the Thing (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/59\/\">59<\/a>\u201364)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/59\/\">\u00a7 59<\/a>:<\/strong> The right to use: property without use would be empty; use is the realization of property.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/60\/\">\u00a7 60<\/a>:<\/strong> Use and substance: through use the thing is altered or consumed.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/61\/\">\u00a7 61<\/a>:<\/strong> Temporally limited use: one can give up the use without losing ownership of the substance (e.g. rent).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/62\/\">\u00a7 62<\/a>:<\/strong> Identity of use and property: if one has total use permanently, one is in fact the owner.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/63\/\">\u00a7 63<\/a>:<\/strong> Value: abstracting from concrete usefulness leads to exchange-value (measurable in money).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/64\/\">\u00a7 64<\/a>:<\/strong> Prescription (lapse): if the will is no longer present in the thing for a long time (non-use), the right of property lapses.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">D. The Relinquishing of Property (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/65\/\">65<\/a>\u201370)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/65\/\">\u00a7 65<\/a>:<\/strong> Freedom to relinquish: I can give a thing away, because it is something external.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/66\/\">\u00a7 66<\/a>:<\/strong> Inalienable goods: my personality, my life, and my freedom of conscience are myself, and can never be rightfully sold.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/67\/\">\u00a7 67<\/a>:<\/strong> Alienation of powers: one can rent out one&#8217;s labor power for a limited time, but not the whole person (the distinction between labor and slavery).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/68\/\">\u00a7 68<\/a>:<\/strong> Intellectual property: the particularity of books\/inventions; the buyer owns the copy but not the right to reproduce it.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/69\/\">\u00a7 69<\/a>:<\/strong> Plagiarism: the violation of the author&#8217;s right to the spiritual form of his expression.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/70\/\">\u00a7 70<\/a>:<\/strong> Moral significance: relinquishment shows that spirit stands above matter.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Transition (\u00a7 71):<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/71\/\">\u00a7 71<\/a>:<\/strong> Property leads to the relation of person to person. The existence of my will no longer lies merely in a thing, but in the will of another person. This is the transition to contract.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">II. Contract (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/72\/\">72<\/a>\u201381)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At this stage, property is no longer merely a one-sided relation to a thing, but is mediated through the will of another.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/72\/\">\u00a7 72<\/a>:<\/strong> Property, as the existence of the will, no longer exists merely in a thing, but in relation to the will of another person.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/73\/\">\u00a7 73<\/a>:<\/strong> Possession is mediated through contract; one possesses something because one has come to an agreement with another about it.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/74\/\">\u00a7 74<\/a>:<\/strong> The essence of contract is the common will. Two persons mutually recognize each other as owners.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/75\/\">\u00a7 75<\/a>:<\/strong> The limit of contract: it applies only to external things. Here Hegel criticizes the idea of a &#8216;social contract&#8217; for the state, since the state is not a mere contractual relation.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/76\/\">\u00a7 76<\/a>:<\/strong> The two sides of contract: the agreement (stipulation) and the performance (realization).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/77\/\">\u00a7 77<\/a>:<\/strong> The thing in contract: it is regarded as a value, which can be exchanged against another thing or performance.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/78\/\">\u00a7 78<\/a>:<\/strong> The transfer of property: through contract, property is ideally transferred, even while physical delivery is still outstanding.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/79\/\">\u00a7 79<\/a>:<\/strong> Contract as formal expression: mere words or a signature make the will objectively valid for others.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/80\/\">\u00a7 80<\/a>:<\/strong> The division of contracts: here Hegel distinguishes, roughly, between gift, exchange (purchase), and service (loan contract).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/81\/\">\u00a7 81<\/a>:<\/strong> The transition to wrong: since contract rests on the particular will (arbitrary will), the possibility arises that this will may diverge from universal right.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">III. Wrong (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/82\/\">82<\/a>\u2013104)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Here the opposition between right in itself (the universal) and the particular will of the individual comes to the fore.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/82\/\">\u00a7 82<\/a>:<\/strong> Definition: wrong is the semblance of right, in which the particular will contradicts universal right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/83\/\">\u00a7 83<\/a>:<\/strong> Three kinds of wrong: 1. unpremeditated wrong, 2. fraud, 3. crime.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A. Unpremeditated Wrong (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/84\/\">84<\/a>\u201386)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/84\/\">\u00a7 84<\/a>:<\/strong> A mere legal dispute: both parties want what is right, but are mistaken about to whom the thing belongs.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/85\/\">\u00a7 85<\/a>:<\/strong> Recognition of right: the conflict remains within the recognition of right as such; a decision is sought through a court.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/86\/\">\u00a7 86<\/a>:<\/strong> Civil proceedings: here the wrong is only a lack of insight, not an evil intent against right.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B. Fraud (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/87\/\">87<\/a>\u201389)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/87\/\">\u00a7 87<\/a>:<\/strong> The semblance of right: the fraudster uses the form of right (e.g. a contract) to violate right at its core.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/88\/\">\u00a7 88<\/a>:<\/strong> Deception: the other is made to believe that right is being done to him, while in truth his will is being violated.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/89\/\">\u00a7 89<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to coercion: in fraud, right is now merely a pretext; the mask falls in the next step.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C. Coercion and Crime (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/90\/\">90<\/a>\u2013104)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/90\/\">\u00a7 90<\/a>:<\/strong> Coercion: the exercise of physical force against the will of a person.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/91\/\">\u00a7 91<\/a>:<\/strong> Vulnerability: because the person has an external existence (body, property), it can be attacked through coercion.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/92\/\">\u00a7 92<\/a>:<\/strong> Crime: the total negation of right. The criminal disregards not merely a single rule, but the principle of right as such.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/93\/\">\u00a7 93<\/a>:<\/strong> The nullity of coercion: coercion is in itself contrary to right; it may be applied only as counter-coercion, to annul a wrong.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/94\/\">\u00a7 94<\/a>:<\/strong> The legal principle of coercion: the use of force against someone who has himself exercised force is lawful (self-defense).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/95\/\">\u00a7 95<\/a>:<\/strong> The violation of right: a crime is an injury directed against the freedom of the person.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/96\/\">\u00a7 96<\/a>:<\/strong> The gravity of the crime: the magnitude of the injury depends on the value of the thing and its significance for personality.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/97\/\">\u00a7 97<\/a>:<\/strong> Punishment: it is the negation of the negation. Crime is the first negation (of right); punishment annuls this and restores right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/98\/\">\u00a7 98<\/a>:<\/strong> Retribution as compensation: in the case of damage to property, punishment can consist in payment of its value.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/99\/\">\u00a7 99<\/a>:<\/strong> The purpose of punishment: Hegel rejects deterrence or reform as the primary justification; punishment is an act of justice in itself.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/100\/\">\u00a7 100<\/a>:<\/strong> The criminal&#8217;s right: by being punished, the criminal is honored as a rational being, whose own deed reacts back upon him as law.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/101\/\">\u00a7 101<\/a>:<\/strong> Retaliation (jus talionis): punishment must correspond to the crime in value and quality (an &#8216;eye for an eye&#8217; in a figurative sense).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/102\/\">\u00a7 102<\/a>:<\/strong> Objective punishment: punishment may not be private revenge, but must be carried out by an impartial power (a court).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/103\/\">\u00a7 103<\/a>:<\/strong> The end of revenge: revenge is itself a new wrong; only punishment by the state ends the cycle of violence.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/104\/\">\u00a7 104<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to morality: through punishment, right is no longer merely external (a thing), but present within the will itself. The will becomes subjective knowledge of right.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n<details>\n<summary>III. Morality (Detailed)<\/summary>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part Two: Morality (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/105\/\">105<\/a>\u2013141)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preliminary Concept: The Moral Standpoint (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/105\/\">105<\/a>\u2013114)<\/h4>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/105\/\">\u00a7 105<\/a>:<\/strong> The will as subject: it is no longer merely immediate (as the person), but reflected into itself.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/106\/\">\u00a7 106<\/a>:<\/strong> Subjectivity as the side of the concept&#8217;s existence; the will is for itself.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/107\/\">\u00a7 107<\/a>:<\/strong> The subjective will as the ground of actions; only what lies in the will counts as one&#8217;s own.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/108\/\">\u00a7 108<\/a>:<\/strong> The action: the expression of the moral will in the external world.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/109\/\">\u00a7 109<\/a>:<\/strong> The opposition of subjectivity and objectivity: acting is the attempt to sublate this opposition.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/110\/\">\u00a7 110<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of the subjective will: it recognizes only what it knows as its own (as rational).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/111\/\">\u00a7 111<\/a>:<\/strong> The goal of morality: that the will should have its own concept (freedom) as its content.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/112\/\">\u00a7 112<\/a>:<\/strong> The externality of action: as soon as the will acts, it enters the sphere of contingency and the laws of nature.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/113\/\">\u00a7 113<\/a>:<\/strong> The deed as a change in the world: the will is responsible for the changes it has brought about.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/114\/\">\u00a7 114<\/a>:<\/strong> Division of morality: 1. Purpose and Responsibility, 2. Intention and Welfare, 3. The Good and Conscience.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">I. Purpose and Responsibility (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/115\/\">115<\/a>\u2013118)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This concerns what a subject can be held accountable for at all.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/115\/\">\u00a7 115<\/a>:<\/strong> The finitude of acting: the will finds material at hand upon which it acts.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/116\/\">\u00a7 116<\/a>:<\/strong> Responsibility (imputation): the subject is responsible for a deed insofar as it was his purpose.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/117\/\">\u00a7 117<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of knowledge: the subject acknowledges as his action only those moments of the deed that he knew in his purpose.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/118\/\">\u00a7 118<\/a>:<\/strong> The consequences of the deed: the subject bears responsibility for the necessary consequences, but not for external, contingent interferences.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">II. Intention and Welfare (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/119\/\">119<\/a>\u2013128)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Here the action is judged according to its purpose and its value for the subject.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/119\/\">\u00a7 119<\/a>:<\/strong> From deed to intention: the action is considered as a universal principle (what do I actually want to achieve by it?).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/120\/\">\u00a7 120<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of intention: the action should make sense for the subject and fulfill his purpose.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/121\/\">\u00a7 121<\/a>:<\/strong> The particularity of the action: in the action, the subject seeks its own satisfaction.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/122\/\">\u00a7 122<\/a>:<\/strong> Means and end: the will uses things and circumstances as means for its intention.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/123\/\">\u00a7 123<\/a>:<\/strong> Subjective interest: every deed requires a driving force within the subject (interest).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/124\/\">\u00a7 124<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of subjectivity: it is a right of the human being that he find his honor and his happiness in his own doing.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/125\/\">\u00a7 125<\/a>:<\/strong> Welfare: the sum of the subject&#8217;s particular ends; the striving for happiness.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/126\/\">\u00a7 126<\/a>:<\/strong> Collision of right and welfare: welfare may not violate abstract right (property), but it has its own validity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/127\/\">\u00a7 127<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of necessity: in extreme danger to life, abstract right recedes (stealing a loaf of bread to save one&#8217;s life is not an ordinary crime).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/128\/\">\u00a7 128<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to the good: when welfare is no longer merely my private welfare but a universal one, it becomes the good.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">III. The Good and Conscience (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/129\/\">129<\/a>\u2013141)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is the high point of morality, but also the point at which it turns over into its opposite.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/129\/\">\u00a7 129<\/a>:<\/strong> The good: the unity of abstract right and welfare; realized freedom as the absolute final end of the world.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/130\/\">\u00a7 130<\/a>:<\/strong> Duty: the will ought to do the good. It is the necessity of acting in accordance with the concept.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/131\/\">\u00a7 131<\/a>:<\/strong> The subject&#8217;s right to insight: I am obligated to do only what I recognize as rational and good.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/132\/\">\u00a7 132<\/a>:<\/strong> Conscience: the innermost conviction of the subject as to what is right and duty.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/133\/\">\u00a7 133<\/a>:<\/strong> Formal certainty: conscience tells me &#8216;do what is right,&#8217; but it does not yet say concretely what is right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/134\/\">\u00a7 134<\/a>:<\/strong> The fulfillment of duty: the subject must find a concrete content, so as not to remain stuck in the abstract.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/135\/\">\u00a7 135<\/a>:<\/strong> Critique of Kant: Hegel criticizes the &#8216;categorical imperative&#8217; because it remains empty (formal identity without concrete content).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/136\/\">\u00a7 136<\/a>:<\/strong> True conscience: the agreement of subjective disposition with the objective good.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/137\/\">\u00a7 137<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of conscience: it is the highest stage of moral freedom, to act according to one&#8217;s own knowledge.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/138\/\">\u00a7 138<\/a>:<\/strong> The danger of subjectivity: conscience can turn against objective right and make itself the standard.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/139\/\">\u00a7 139<\/a>:<\/strong> Evil: the arbitrary will that raises itself above the universal; the conscious decision against what is rational.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/140\/\">\u00a7 140<\/a>:<\/strong> The forms of moral aberration: here Hegel analyzes hypocrisy, probabilism, the &#8216;good intention&#8217; as an excuse, and irony.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/141\/\">\u00a7 141<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to ethical life: since conscience alone cannot guarantee the content of the good, it must embody itself in stable, objective institutions (family, state).<\/p>\n\n\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n<details>\n<summary>IV. Ethical Life (Detailed)<\/summary>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part Three: Ethical Life (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/142\/\">142<\/a>\u2013360)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preliminary Concept: Ethical Life (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/142\/\">142<\/a>\u2013157)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Here Hegel explains how the subjective and the objective work together in a living unity.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/142\/\">\u00a7 142<\/a>:<\/strong> Ethical life is the Idea of freedom; it is the living good will that has its existence in the world of institutions.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/143\/\">\u00a7 143<\/a>:<\/strong> It is the unity of the subjective will and the concept of right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/144\/\">\u00a7 144<\/a>:<\/strong> Ethical substance is the system of laws and institutions that carry absolute authority for the individual.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/145\/\">\u00a7 145<\/a>:<\/strong> These laws are not alien, but the individual&#8217;s own essence of spirit (they are &#8216;spirit of its spirit&#8217;).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/146\/\">\u00a7 146<\/a>:<\/strong> The recognition of the ethical powers: the individual recognizes in them its own substance.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/147\/\">\u00a7 147<\/a>:<\/strong> The individual&#8217;s relation to substance is a relation of trust.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/148\/\">\u00a7 148<\/a>:<\/strong> Duty: in ethical life, duty loses its character of compulsion, since it is the individual&#8217;s own essence.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/149\/\">\u00a7 149<\/a>:<\/strong> Duty frees the human being from dependence on mere drives and subjective arbitrariness.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/150\/\">\u00a7 150<\/a>:<\/strong> Virtue: ethical life as it shows itself in the character of an individual as firm conduct.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/151\/\">\u00a7 151<\/a>:<\/strong> Ethical life as second nature: through habit, rational acting becomes the nature of the human being.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/152\/\">\u00a7 152<\/a>:<\/strong> Objective ethical life takes the place of mere moral conscience.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/153\/\">\u00a7 153<\/a>:<\/strong> The individual finds his right and his freedom in being a member of an ethical whole.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/154\/\">\u00a7 154<\/a>:<\/strong> Trust as the subjective disposition within ethical life.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/155\/\">\u00a7 155<\/a>:<\/strong> The ethical is the universal; it pervades all the actions of the individual.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/156\/\">\u00a7 156<\/a>:<\/strong> Ethical substance as the true, real spirit of a people.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/157\/\">\u00a7 157<\/a>:<\/strong> Division of ethical life:<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The family (immediate ethical life),<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">civil society (the stage of separation\/particularity),<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">the state (concrete universality).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">I. The Family (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/158\/\">158<\/a>\u2013181)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The family is &#8216;natural ethical life.&#8217; Its principle is love.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A. Marriage (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/161\/\">161<\/a>\u2013169)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/158\/\">\u00a7 158<\/a>:<\/strong> Love as spirit: within the family, one is no longer a separate person for oneself, but part of a whole.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/159\/\">\u00a7 159<\/a>:<\/strong> The family as a single person: the members surrender their individual personality within the unity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/160\/\">\u00a7 160<\/a>:<\/strong> Moments of the family: marriage, the family&#8217;s resources, and the upbringing of children.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/161\/\">\u00a7 161<\/a>:<\/strong> Marriage: it is ethical love. It begins as a contract, but through love it sublates the contractual character (the merely legal aspect).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/162\/\">\u00a7 162<\/a>:<\/strong> The transition to marriage: it should not rest on mere drive, but on a free, conscious consent to the bond.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/163\/\">\u00a7 163<\/a>:<\/strong> The conclusion of marriage: the act of consent makes marriage into an ethical relationship.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/164\/\">\u00a7 164<\/a>:<\/strong> The solemn ceremony: recognition of the marriage by the community\/the state is what first makes it an objective right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/165\/\">\u00a7 165<\/a>:<\/strong> Monogamy: since marriage requires the total surrender of the person, it can exist only between two persons.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/166\/\">\u00a7 166<\/a>:<\/strong> The difference of the sexes: the man has his essence more in the state and in work, the woman in the family and piety.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/167\/\">\u00a7 167<\/a>:<\/strong> Indissolubility: in the Idea, marriage is indissoluble, since it rests on an absolute ethical bond.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/168\/\">\u00a7 168<\/a>:<\/strong> Prohibitions on marriage: marriage may not be contracted within the circle of blood relations (the prohibition of incest), since here love is already &#8216;naturally&#8217; present rather than first grounded ethically.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/169\/\">\u00a7 169<\/a>:<\/strong> The end of marriage as mere feeling: the goal is the transformation of love into a stable, lasting institution.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B. The Family&#8217;s Resources (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/170\/\">170<\/a>\u2013172)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/170\/\">\u00a7 170<\/a>:<\/strong> Resources: the family needs a common external existence (possessions).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/171\/\">\u00a7 171<\/a>:<\/strong> The head of the family: the husband represents the family&#8217;s resources externally, but they belong to the family as a whole.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/172\/\">\u00a7 172<\/a>:<\/strong> Acquisition and care: labor serves to maintain this common ethical ground.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C. The Upbringing of Children and the Dissolution of the Family (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/173\/\">173<\/a>\u2013181)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/173\/\">\u00a7 173<\/a>:<\/strong> Children: in them the unity of the parents becomes objective and perceptible. They are &#8216;flesh of flesh.&#8217;<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/174\/\">\u00a7 174<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of upbringing: children have a right to an upbringing; they are not things belonging to the parents, but persons free in themselves.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/175\/\">\u00a7 175<\/a>:<\/strong> The aim of upbringing: to lead children to independence and to ethical freedom, so that they can found families of their own.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/176\/\">\u00a7 176<\/a>:<\/strong> The dissolution of marriage: as a matter of fact, marriage can end through divorce, when the ethical bond (love) has been irreparably destroyed.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/177\/\">\u00a7 177<\/a>:<\/strong> Death and inheritance: with the death of the parents, the family as an immediate unity dissolves.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/178\/\">\u00a7 178<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of inheritance: the family&#8217;s resources remain within the family and pass to the children.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/179\/\">\u00a7 179<\/a>:<\/strong> The will (testament): Hegel takes a critical view of the right to arbitrary testaments; the children&#8217;s right of inheritance is more substantial than the parents&#8217; arbitrary will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/180\/\">\u00a7 180<\/a>:<\/strong> Coming of age: children step out of the family as new, independent persons.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/181\/\">\u00a7 181<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to civil society: when many families, as independent units, confront one another, the &#8216;system of needs&#8217; arises.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">II. Civil Society (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/182\/\">182<\/a>\u2013256)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For Hegel, this section is the stage of difference. Whereas the family is an immediate unity, in civil society individuals emerge as independent, self-interested persons. It is the &#8216;system of needs,&#8217; in which each is for himself, yet remains unconsciously bound to all others through labor and the market.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preliminary Concept (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/182\/\">182<\/a>\u2013188)<\/h4>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/182\/\">\u00a7 182<\/a>:<\/strong> The concrete person: the individual as a whole of needs and arbitrary will, for whom his own particular end is the highest thing (egoism).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/183\/\">\u00a7 183<\/a>:<\/strong> Particularity and universality: I can achieve my own end only by relating myself to others; in this way a universal, all-round dependence arises.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/184\/\">\u00a7 184<\/a>:<\/strong> Civil society as the realm of division: here spirit steps outside its unity; luxury and misery exist side by side.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/185\/\">\u00a7 185<\/a>:<\/strong> The contradiction of civil society: the satisfaction of needs is boundless and tends toward the destruction of ethical life.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/186\/\">\u00a7 186<\/a>:<\/strong> Formal education (Bildung): in order for needs to be satisfied, the human being must learn to conduct himself in a universal manner (the formation of the understanding).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/187\/\">\u00a7 187<\/a>:<\/strong> The individual as &#8216;son of civil society&#8217;: he is no longer merely a member of a family, but stands within a worldwide network of labor.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/188\/\">\u00a7 188<\/a>:<\/strong> Division:<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A. The System of Needs * B. The Administration of Justice * C. The Police and the Corporation<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">A. The System of Needs (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/189\/\">189<\/a>\u2013208)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a) The Kind of Need and Satisfaction (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/190\/\">190<\/a>\u2013195)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/189\/\">\u00a7 189<\/a>:<\/strong> The satisfaction of the particular through the mediation of the universal.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/190\/\">\u00a7 190<\/a>:<\/strong> Animal versus human needs: the human being multiplies his needs and refines them (culture).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/191\/\">\u00a7 191<\/a>:<\/strong> The social component: needs arise through comparison with others.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/192\/\">\u00a7 192<\/a>:<\/strong> Convenience: technology and labor make satisfaction ever easier and more refined.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/193\/\">\u00a7 193<\/a>:<\/strong> Social ambition: the craving for recognition through consumption.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/194\/\">\u00a7 194<\/a>:<\/strong> Liberation through consumption: the human being makes himself independent of mere nature by subjugating it.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/195\/\">\u00a7 195<\/a>:<\/strong> The opposition of wealth and poverty as a necessary result of the logic of the market.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">b) The Kind of Labor (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/196\/\">196<\/a>\u2013198)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/196\/\">\u00a7 196<\/a>:<\/strong> Labor: the mediation between need and thing; the human being gives matter a human form.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/197\/\">\u00a7 197<\/a>:<\/strong> The division of labor: through specialization, labor becomes simpler, more abstract, and more productive.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/198\/\">\u00a7 198<\/a>:<\/strong> The machine: once labor becomes entirely mechanical, the human being can delegate it to machines.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">c) Resources and the Estates (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/199\/\">199<\/a>\u2013208)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/199\/\">\u00a7 199<\/a>:<\/strong> Universal resources: the labor of all forms a common pool from which everyone draws.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/200\/\">\u00a7 200<\/a>:<\/strong> Inequality: since talents and industriousness differ, inequality of resources is unavoidable.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/201\/\">\u00a7 201<\/a>:<\/strong> The estates (classes): the division of society according to the kind of labor performed.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/202\/\">\u00a7 202<\/a>:<\/strong> The three estates:<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The substantial estate (farmers).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The estate of trade and industry (craftsmen, merchants).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The universal estate (civil servants).<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/203\/\">\u00a7 203<\/a>:<\/strong> The substantial estate: its life is shaped by nature, by the land, and by family love.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/204\/\">\u00a7 204<\/a>:<\/strong> The estate of trade and industry: it rests on reflection, education, and the exchange of goods.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/205\/\">\u00a7 205<\/a>:<\/strong> The universal estate: its purpose is the welfare of the universal, and for this it is maintained by the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/206\/\">\u00a7 206<\/a>:<\/strong> Choice of estate: the individual&#8217;s right to choose his own estate (as opposed to a caste system).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/207\/\">\u00a7 207<\/a>:<\/strong> The honor of one&#8217;s estate: an individual&#8217;s sense of self-worth depends on being a recognized member of an estate.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/208\/\">\u00a7 208<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to the administration of justice: right must now hold as law, equally for all.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">B. The Administration of Justice (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/209\/\">209<\/a>\u2013229)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In civil society, abstract right becomes concrete law.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/209\/\">\u00a7 209<\/a>:<\/strong> Recognition of right: in civil society, the human being is recognized as a &#8216;human being,&#8217; independent of his estate.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/210\/\">\u00a7 210<\/a>:<\/strong> Right must be known objectively.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/211\/\">\u00a7 211<\/a>:<\/strong> Law: right must be fixed in writing so that it is recognizable to everyone (codification).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/212\/\">\u00a7 212<\/a>:<\/strong> Legal validity: in civil society, only the law is binding.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/213\/\">\u00a7 213<\/a>:<\/strong> Positive law: the application of rational right to the contingent details of actuality.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/214\/\">\u00a7 214<\/a>:<\/strong> The determinacy of the law: it must lay down clear measures and penalties.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/215\/\">\u00a7 215<\/a>:<\/strong> Promulgation: a law is just only if it is public and comprehensible.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/216\/\">\u00a7 216<\/a>:<\/strong> Legal certainty: trust that the law will remain stable.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/217\/\">\u00a7 217<\/a>:<\/strong> The judge: the personification of the law, who subsumes the particular under the universal.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/218\/\">\u00a7 218<\/a>:<\/strong> The gravity of an offense: in a stable society, a crime is punished more mildly than in an unstable one.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/219\/\">\u00a7 219<\/a>:<\/strong> The court: the public institution for the enforcement of right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/220\/\">\u00a7 220<\/a>:<\/strong> Justice as a service that society renders to the individual.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/221\/\">\u00a7 221<\/a>:<\/strong> Civil proceedings: the formal clarification of legal claims.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/222\/\">\u00a7 222<\/a>:<\/strong> The burden of proof: the rational ascertainment of the truth in a trial.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/223\/\">\u00a7 223<\/a>:<\/strong> Transparency: the trial must proceed according to fixed rules.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/224\/\">\u00a7 224<\/a>:<\/strong> Publicity: judicial proceedings must be public, so that citizens have trust in justice.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/225\/\">\u00a7 225<\/a>:<\/strong> The separation of the facts of the case from the question of law.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/226\/\">\u00a7 226<\/a>:<\/strong> The jury: the citizen&#8217;s right to be judged on the facts by his equals.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/227\/\">\u00a7 227<\/a>:<\/strong> The judge&#8217;s conviction must rest on objective grounds.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/228\/\">\u00a7 228<\/a>:<\/strong> Equality before the law.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/229\/\">\u00a7 229<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to the police: right protects only what already exists; the police must take on responsibility for the provident protection of welfare.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">C. The Police and the Corporation (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/230\/\">230<\/a>\u2013256)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Civil society must protect itself against contingency and poverty.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/230\/\">\u00a7 230<\/a>:<\/strong> The transition to the police: whereas in the administration of justice, right becomes active only once it has been violated (reactively), there now arises the necessity of protecting the right and welfare of individuals in a provident, preventive way. The right to security and subsistence becomes a general concern of society.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a) The Police (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/231\/\">231<\/a>\u2013249) Note: for Hegel, &#8216;police&#8217; means the entire public administration and provision of public welfare.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/231\/\">\u00a7 231<\/a>:<\/strong> External order: the protection of property and security.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/232\/\">\u00a7 232<\/a>:<\/strong> Oversight of public security.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/233\/\">\u00a7 233<\/a>:<\/strong> Market regulation: the police ensure that trade and commerce function smoothly.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/234\/\">\u00a7 234<\/a>:<\/strong> Provision against fraud: the control of weights, measures, and the quality of goods.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/235\/\">\u00a7 235<\/a>:<\/strong> Public infrastructure: roads, bridges, lighting.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/236\/\">\u00a7 236<\/a>:<\/strong> Public health: provision against disease and epidemics.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/237\/\">\u00a7 237<\/a>:<\/strong> Market instability: the police must intervene when the market shows excessive fluctuations.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/238\/\">\u00a7 238<\/a>:<\/strong> Education: society takes on the task of educating individuals when the family fails.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/239\/\">\u00a7 239<\/a>:<\/strong> Protecting the individual from his own arbitrary will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/240\/\">\u00a7 240<\/a>:<\/strong> General oversight of the family.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/241\/\">\u00a7 241<\/a>:<\/strong> Poor relief: society is obligated to provide for the poor.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/242\/\">\u00a7 242<\/a>:<\/strong> The limits of private charity: assistance must be carried out through public institutions, in order to be legally secure.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/243\/\">\u00a7 243<\/a>:<\/strong> The production of the rabble: civil society necessarily produces a class of people who have needs but cannot find work.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/244\/\">\u00a7 244<\/a>:<\/strong> The danger of the rabble: when poverty leads to indignation against society, it becomes dangerous.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/245\/\">\u00a7 245<\/a>:<\/strong> The insolubility of the problem of poverty: Hegel recognizes that civil society cannot resolve the problem of poverty out of itself.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/246\/\">\u00a7 246<\/a>:<\/strong> Colonization: society must expand outward in order to find new markets.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/247\/\">\u00a7 247<\/a>:<\/strong> The sea as a trade route: the sea connects peoples and furthers the world spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/248\/\">\u00a7 248<\/a>:<\/strong> The founding of colonies as an outlet for the surplus of people and goods.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/249\/\">\u00a7 249<\/a>:<\/strong> The police as the connecting link between private, civic advantage and the universal interest.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">b) The Corporation (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/250\/\">250<\/a>\u2013256)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/250\/\">\u00a7 250<\/a>:<\/strong> The corporation (professional association): the estate of trade and industry organizes itself into corporations.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/251\/\">\u00a7 251<\/a>:<\/strong> Professional identity: the individual finds his social home within the corporation.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/252\/\">\u00a7 252<\/a>:<\/strong> The corporation as a &#8216;second family&#8217;: it provides protection and solidarity in the case of illness or unemployment.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/253\/\">\u00a7 253<\/a>:<\/strong> The honor and dignity of one&#8217;s estate: through the corporation, the individual&#8217;s labor is socially recognized.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/254\/\">\u00a7 254<\/a>:<\/strong> Oversight of qualifications: the corporation guarantees the quality of the work.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/255\/\">\u00a7 255<\/a>:<\/strong> A preliminary stage of the state: within the corporation, the citizen learns to act, beyond his own self-interest, for a common goal.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/256\/\">\u00a7 256<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to the state: civil society finds its conscious unity in the state.<\/p>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">III. The State (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/257\/\">257<\/a>\u2013360)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preliminary Concept: The Essence of the State (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/257\/\">257<\/a>\u2013259)<\/h4>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/257\/\">\u00a7 257<\/a>:<\/strong> The state as the actuality of the ethical Idea; the spirit that unfolds itself in the world as will and knowledge.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/258\/\">\u00a7 258<\/a>:<\/strong> The state as rational in and for itself: it is not a means to an end, but the absolute end in itself. It is the union of the universal end and individual interest.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/259\/\">\u00a7 259<\/a>:<\/strong> The Idea of the state has:<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a) Immediate actuality (internal constitutional law).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">b) Its relation to other states (external constitutional law).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">c) The stage of the world spirit (world history).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">A. Internal Constitutional Law (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/260\/\">260<\/a>\u2013329)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">1. The Internal Constitution as Such (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/260\/\">260<\/a>\u2013271) Here Hegel describes the organic interplay between citizens and the state.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/260\/\">\u00a7 260<\/a>:<\/strong> The principle of the modern state: the unity of subjective freedom and the objective order of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/261\/\">\u00a7 261<\/a>:<\/strong> The unity of duty and right: what is a duty for the state is a right for the citizen (and vice versa).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/262\/\">\u00a7 262<\/a>:<\/strong> Mediation through family and civil society: the state needs these spheres as its foundation.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/263\/\">\u00a7 263<\/a>:<\/strong> The transformation of interest: private welfare becomes, within the state, a universal end.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/264\/\">\u00a7 264<\/a>:<\/strong> The knowledge of the substantial: citizens know themselves, within the state, to be in their own essence.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/265\/\">\u00a7 265<\/a>:<\/strong> Institutions as pillars of freedom: they guarantee that the state is not arbitrary.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/266\/\">\u00a7 266<\/a>:<\/strong> Spirit as knowledge: the state is a conscious structure, not a blind fate.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/267\/\">\u00a7 267<\/a>:<\/strong> Patriotism (political disposition): the citizen&#8217;s trust in the state as his own foundation.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/268\/\">\u00a7 268<\/a>:<\/strong> Political consciousness: the habit of regarding the commonwealth as the basis of one&#8217;s life.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/269\/\">\u00a7 269<\/a>:<\/strong> The organization of the state: spirit organically articulates itself into different powers.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/270\/\">\u00a7 270<\/a>:<\/strong> State and religion: religion provides inner depth, but the state is the external, legal actuality. The state protects freedom of religion, but must not allow itself to be ruled by religious arbitrariness.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/271\/\">\u00a7 271<\/a>:<\/strong> The constitution as the organization of the powers of the state.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">2. The Division of Powers (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/272\/\">272<\/a>\u2013297) Hegel rejects a rigid separation of powers (checks and balances) and calls instead for an organic articulation.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/272\/\">\u00a7 272<\/a>:<\/strong> The differentiation of the powers: they are not separate, but parts of a living whole.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a) The power of the crown.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">b) The power of government.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">c) The legislative power.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/274\/\">\u00a7 274<\/a>:<\/strong> The sovereignty of the state: the power of the state to decide on and over itself.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a) The Power of the Crown (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/275\/\">275<\/a>\u2013286) The prince (monarch) is the &#8216;point,&#8217; the final &#8216;I&#8217; that makes the decision.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/275\/\">\u00a7 275<\/a>:<\/strong> The monarch: he represents the unity of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/276\/\">\u00a7 276<\/a>:<\/strong> The ideality of the members of the state: in the prince, the multiplicity of the state finds its apex.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/277\/\">\u00a7 277<\/a>:<\/strong> Office and person: in the modern state, an office is not bound to the private person, except in the case of the monarch.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/278\/\">\u00a7 278<\/a>:<\/strong> Sovereignty internally: the subordination of all particular rights to the welfare of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/279\/\">\u00a7 279<\/a>:<\/strong> The subjective &#8216;I will&#8217;: the monarch places the final point beneath the laws and deliberations.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/280\/\">\u00a7 280<\/a>:<\/strong> Hereditary monarchy: so that the choice of head of state is not subject to arbitrary will or party strife, it must be fixed naturally (through birth).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/281\/\">\u00a7 281<\/a>:<\/strong> The inviolability of the monarch: he is the neutral point above the day-to-day political business.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/282\/\">\u00a7 282<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of pardon: the monarch can mitigate the law and let mercy prevail over right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/283\/\">\u00a7 283<\/a>:<\/strong> The appointment of ministers: the prince chooses his advisors.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/284\/\">\u00a7 284<\/a>:<\/strong> The responsibility of the ministers: it is not the monarch who is politically responsible, but the executive government.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/285\/\">\u00a7 285<\/a>:<\/strong> The government as the executive organ.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/286\/\">\u00a7 286<\/a>:<\/strong> The securing of the constitution through loyalty to the monarch.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">b) The Power of Government (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/287\/\">287<\/a>\u2013297) This concerns administration and the civil service.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/287\/\">\u00a7 287<\/a>:<\/strong> The executive: the application of the law to the particular case.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/288\/\">\u00a7 288<\/a>:<\/strong> The tasks of the police and the corporations within the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/289\/\">\u00a7 289<\/a>:<\/strong> The civil servants: they form the core of the &#8216;universal estate.&#8217;<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/290\/\">\u00a7 290<\/a>:<\/strong> The division of administrative business: specialized ministries and authorities.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/291\/\">\u00a7 291<\/a>:<\/strong> Access to the civil service: every citizen can become a civil servant (the principle of merit).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/292\/\">\u00a7 292<\/a>:<\/strong> The filling of posts: examination and qualification rather than arbitrary appointment.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/293\/\">\u00a7 293<\/a>:<\/strong> Remuneration: civil servants must be economically independent in order to remain impartial.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/294\/\">\u00a7 294<\/a>:<\/strong> The service relationship as an ethical bond, not a mere contract.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/295\/\">\u00a7 295<\/a>:<\/strong> Control of administration: protecting citizens from arbitrariness through a hierarchy of appeal.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/296\/\">\u00a7 296<\/a>:<\/strong> The ethics of the civil service: objectivity, a sense of duty, and education.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/297\/\">\u00a7 297<\/a>:<\/strong> Government as the connecting link between prince and people.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">c) The Legislative Power (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/298\/\">298<\/a>\u2013320)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The legislative power is the power to determine the laws as such and to regulate the internal affairs of the state that concern everyone.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/298\/\">\u00a7 298<\/a>:<\/strong> Definition: the legislative power concerns the laws as such, and those internal affairs which, in their content, are wholly universal.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/299\/\">\u00a7 299<\/a>:<\/strong> The content of legislation: on the one hand it determines what the state demands from citizens (services\/contributions), and on the other, the rights of citizens vis-\u00e0-vis the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/300\/\">\u00a7 300<\/a>:<\/strong> The cooperation of the powers: legislation is not an isolated power; the monarch has the final decision, and the power of government contributes its expert knowledge.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/301\/\">\u00a7 301<\/a>:<\/strong> The estates element: the participation of private persons in legislation takes place through deputies of the estates. Hegel emphasizes that the people should not act as an &#8216;unorganized mass.&#8217;<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/302\/\">\u00a7 302<\/a>:<\/strong> The purpose of the estates: they serve as mediators between the government and the people, dissolved into its particular circles.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/303\/\">\u00a7 303<\/a>:<\/strong> Organic articulation: the estates rest on the articulation of civil society (the circles of the corporations and professions).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/304\/\">\u00a7 304<\/a>:<\/strong> The bicameral division of the Assembly of Estates: to avoid one-sidedness, the assembly is divided into two chambers.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Two Chambers of the Estates (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/305\/\">305<\/a>\u2013313)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/305\/\">\u00a7 305<\/a>:<\/strong> The substantial estate (nobility\/landowners): it forms the first chamber. Its position rests on landed property and, through primogeniture (hereditary succession), is independent of the state treasury and market fluctuations.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/306\/\">\u00a7 306<\/a>:<\/strong> The political role of the nobility: it is the born mediator between throne and people, since it possesses a natural firmness.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/307\/\">\u00a7 307<\/a>:<\/strong> Independence: this estate needs no election; it is called to participation in state power through its social position.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/308\/\">\u00a7 308<\/a>:<\/strong> The estate of trade and industry: it sends deputies to the second chamber. These are elected from the corporations and communities.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/309\/\">\u00a7 309<\/a>:<\/strong> Deputation rather than direct election: it is not every single individual who votes directly (which would lead to atomization), but the organized communities that send representatives.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/310\/\">\u00a7 310<\/a>:<\/strong> The qualification of deputies: they must possess expert knowledge and a disposition that keeps the universal welfare in view.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/311\/\">\u00a7 311<\/a>:<\/strong> The representation of interests: deputies represent the particular interests of their own spheres of life (trade, craft, etc.), which they know best.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/312\/\">\u00a7 312<\/a>:<\/strong> Deliberation: in the assembly, particular interests are raised to universal insight.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/313\/\">\u00a7 313<\/a>:<\/strong> The publicity of debates: sessions must be public, so that the people learn how affairs of state are handled.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Public Opinion (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/314\/\">314<\/a>\u2013320)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/314\/\">\u00a7 314<\/a>:<\/strong> Political education: through the Assembly of Estates, the public is instructed about the purposes of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/315\/\">\u00a7 315<\/a>:<\/strong> Public opinion: it is the way in which the people think and pass judgment about universal affairs.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/316\/\">\u00a7 316<\/a>:<\/strong> The essence of public opinion: it contains both the eternal, substantial truths of reason and an infinite amount of prejudice, unreason, and contingency.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/317\/\">\u00a7 317<\/a>:<\/strong> The paradox of public opinion: &#8216;It deserves to be as much respected as despised.&#8217; One respects the kernel of truth within it, but despises its superficial form.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/318\/\">\u00a7 318<\/a>:<\/strong> The true statesman: he is the one who listens to public opinion, but does what it, at its core, actually wants, without following its fickle moods.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/319\/\">\u00a7 319<\/a>:<\/strong> Freedom of the press: Hegel supports it, but also emphasizes legal responsibility for defamation and incitement against the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/320\/\">\u00a7 320<\/a>:<\/strong> Subjectivity and the state: subjective freedom finds its expression in public opinion, but must measure itself against the objective rationality of the state.<\/p>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">3. Sovereignty Abroad (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/321\/\">321<\/a>\u2013329)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The state is an individuality, and as such it confronts other states.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/321\/\">\u00a7 321<\/a>:<\/strong> The state as real individuality: it is an exclusive one, which delimits itself against others.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/322\/\">\u00a7 322<\/a>:<\/strong> Sovereignty: it shows itself in the fact that the state is externally independent and asserts its own identity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/323\/\">\u00a7 323<\/a>:<\/strong> The relation to other states: it is marked by recognition, but also by potential hostility.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/324\/\">\u00a7 324<\/a>:<\/strong> War: Hegel regards it as a moment that preserves the &#8216;ethical health&#8217; of peoples, by preventing ossification in purely private prosperity (functional equivalents are possible at more developed stages).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/325\/\">\u00a7 325<\/a>:<\/strong> Sacrifice for the whole: in war, the nullity of finite goods (life and property) is demonstrated in the face of the infinity of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/326\/\">\u00a7 326<\/a>:<\/strong> State power in war: in times of emergency, all power concentrates in the monarch as the point of decision that saves the situation.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/327\/\">\u00a7 327<\/a>:<\/strong> Valor: the disposition to stake one&#8217;s own life for the freedom of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/328\/\">\u00a7 328<\/a>:<\/strong> Formal versus substantial valor: it is not a matter of mere love of adventure, but of service to a rational cause.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/329\/\">\u00a7 329<\/a>:<\/strong> Command: the power of the crown decides on war and peace and leads the military.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">B. External Constitutional Law (International Law) (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/330\/\">330<\/a>\u2013340)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This concerns the &#8216;treaties&#8217; between sovereign powers.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/330\/\">\u00a7 330<\/a>:<\/strong> International law rests on the relation of independent states to one another.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/331\/\">\u00a7 331<\/a>:<\/strong> Recognition: a state is such only when it is recognized as sovereign by others.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/332\/\">\u00a7 332<\/a>:<\/strong> The treaty between states: the means of exchange between states.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/333\/\">\u00a7 333<\/a>:<\/strong> The problem of international law: since there is no &#8216;super-state&#8217; (no world praetor), international law rests only on the will of states. Pacta sunt servanda holds, but only so long as it serves the welfare of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/334\/\">\u00a7 334<\/a>:<\/strong> Dispute and war: when wills collide and no treaty helps, war is the sole means of decision.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/335\/\">\u00a7 335<\/a>:<\/strong> The ground for war: an injury to honor or right suffices as a ground for war.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/336\/\">\u00a7 336<\/a>:<\/strong> The highest law: the welfare of the state is the supreme criterion in foreign policy.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/337\/\">\u00a7 337<\/a>:<\/strong> Diplomacy: states interact through envoys and recognize one another as legal subjects even in conflict.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/338\/\">\u00a7 338<\/a>:<\/strong> Jus in bello (the law of war): war, as a moment of reason, must be conducted in such a way that a later peace remains possible (sparing civilians and private property).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/339\/\">\u00a7 339<\/a>:<\/strong> Prisoners and private persons: war is waged between states (the military), not against individuals.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/340\/\">\u00a7 340<\/a>:<\/strong> The transition to history: since states have no judge over them, their verdict is world history.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">C. World History (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/341\/\">341<\/a>\u2013360)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Hegel regards history as progress in the consciousness and the realization of freedom.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/341\/\">\u00a7 341<\/a>:<\/strong> World history is the world&#8217;s court of judgment: the world spirit decides on the right of peoples.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/342\/\">\u00a7 342<\/a>:<\/strong> The world spirit stands above the right of individual states; it uses them as its instruments.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/343\/\">\u00a7 343<\/a>:<\/strong> Spirit as the actual: history is the unfolding of spirit toward self-knowledge.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/344\/\">\u00a7 344<\/a>:<\/strong> Peoples as organs: each people has an era in which it represents the world spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/345\/\">\u00a7 345<\/a>:<\/strong> Dominant peoples: at any one time, only a single people can be the world-historically leading one.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/346\/\">\u00a7 346<\/a>:<\/strong> The stages of development: history proceeds according to a necessary rationality.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/347\/\">\u00a7 347<\/a>:<\/strong> The world-historical people: it has the right to carry forward the principles of freedom.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/348\/\">\u00a7 348<\/a>:<\/strong> Spirit works &#8216;behind the backs&#8217; of the actors (the cunning of reason).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/349\/\">\u00a7 349<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of the world spirit is the absolutely highest right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/350\/\">\u00a7 350<\/a>:<\/strong> Civilization versus barbarism: peoples with a higher ethical organization have a right against unorganized peoples.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/351\/\">\u00a7 351<\/a>:<\/strong> The task of the state in history: to bring spirit into an objective shape.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/352\/\">\u00a7 352<\/a>:<\/strong> The four realms of world history:<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/353\/\">\u00a7 353<\/a>:<\/strong> Criterion of the realms: how much freedom has been realized?<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/354\/\">\u00a7 354<\/a>:<\/strong> 1. The Oriental realm: substantial unity. Only one is free (the ruler).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/355\/\">\u00a7 355<\/a>:<\/strong> 2. The Greek realm: beautiful freedom. Some are free (citizens, but slavery remains).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/356\/\">\u00a7 356<\/a>:<\/strong> 3. The Roman realm: abstract right. The person is legally recognized, but under an abstract imperial will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/357\/\">\u00a7 357<\/a>:<\/strong> 4. The Germanic realm: the Christian-European world. Spirit recognizes that all human beings are free in themselves.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/358\/\">\u00a7 358<\/a>:<\/strong> Reconciliation: the &#8216;Germanic principle&#8217; leads to the reconciliation of state and church, inwardness and world.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/359\/\">\u00a7 359<\/a>:<\/strong> The state as the image of reason: here spirit finds its abiding existence.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/360\/\">\u00a7 360<\/a>:<\/strong> The goal: in the philosophy of right, spirit returns to itself and comprehends its freedom as absolute truth.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/details>\n\n\n<div style=\"background-color: #f2f4f6; padding: 20px; border-radius: 8px; margin-top: 40px; border-left: 5px solid #abb7c2;\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\">\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\" style=\"margin-top: 0; padding-left: 20px;\">\n \t<li><mark class=\"has-inline-color\" style=\"background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0); color: #99a7af;\">CC. Philosophy of Absolute Spirit<\/mark>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n \t<li style=\"font-style: normal; font-weight: 100; color: #99a7af;\">Art<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"font-style: normal; font-weight: 100; color: #99a7af;\">Religion<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"font-style: normal; font-weight: 100; color: #99a7af;\">Philosophy<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Highlighting and notes: Select a passage with the mouse or your finger and tap \u201cHighlight\u201d or \u201cNote\u201d. This works on every page of this site, including the text of the Groundlines. Your highlights stay in your own browser only; \u201cMy notes\u201d at the bottom right shows them all at a glance, saves them as a [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-4523","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4523","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4523"}],"version-history":[{"count":14,"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4523\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":906285,"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4523\/revisions\/906285"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4523"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}