{"id":4523,"date":"2026-08-21T17:15:03","date_gmt":"2026-08-21T15:15:03","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/?page_id=4523"},"modified":"2026-09-04T13:35:10","modified_gmt":"2026-09-04T11:35:10","slug":"table-of-contents","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/table-of-contents\/","title":{"rendered":"Table of Contents"},"content":{"rendered":"<div style=\"background-color: #f2f4f6; padding: 20px; border-radius: 8px; margin-bottom: 30px; border-left: 5px solid #abb7c2;\">\n<p class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #abb7c2b0; margin-bottom: 5px;\">A. Introduction to the System (Phenomenology of Spirit)<\/p>\n<p class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #abb7c2b0; margin-bottom: 5px;\">B. Science of Logic<\/p>\n<p class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #abb7c2b0; margin-bottom: 5px;\">C. Philosophy of Nature<\/p>\n<p class=\"has-text-color\" style=\"color: #99a7af; margin-bottom: 5px;\">D. Philosophy of Spirit<\/p>\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\" style=\"margin-top: 10px; color: #828f96;\">\n \t<li><mark class=\"has-inline-color\" style=\"background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0); color: #828f96;\">AA. Philosophy of Subjective Spirit<\/mark><\/li>\n \t<li>BB. <strong><em>Philosophy of Objective Spirit <\/em><\/strong>=&gt;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-large-font-size\">Groundlines of the Philosophy of Right<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Preface<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Introduction (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/1\/\">1<\/a>\u201332)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The concept of the will, of freedom, and of right.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part One: Abstract Right (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/33\/\">33<\/a>\u2013104)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>First Section: Property (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/41\/\">41<\/a>\u201371)<\/li>\n<li>Second Section: Contract (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/72\/\">72<\/a>\u201381)<\/li>\n<li>Third Section: Wrong (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/82\/\">82<\/a>\u2013104)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part Two: Morality (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/105\/\">105<\/a>\u2013141)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>First Section: Purpose and Responsibility (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/115\/\">115<\/a>\u2013118)<\/li>\n<li>Second Section: Intention and Welfare (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/119\/\">119<\/a>\u2013128)<\/li>\n<li>Third Section: The Good and Conscience (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/129\/\">129<\/a>\u2013141)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part Three: Ethical Life (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/142\/\">142<\/a>\u2013360)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>First Section: The Family (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/158\/\">158<\/a>\u2013181)<\/li>\n<li>Second Section: Civil Society (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/182\/\">182<\/a>\u2013256)<\/li>\n<li>Third Section: The State (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/257\/\">257<\/a>\u2013360)<br>Internal Constitutional Law (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/260\/\">260<\/a>\u2013329)<br>External Constitutional Law (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/330\/\">330<\/a>\u2013340)<br>World History (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/341\/\">341<\/a>\u2013360)<br><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u25bc Click the headings below to open the details \u25bc<\/p>\n\n\n\n<details>\n<summary>I. Preface &amp; Introduction (Detailed)<\/summary>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/1\/\">\u00a7 1<\/a>:<\/strong> Determination of the subject matter: The philosophical science of right treats the Idea of right (the unity of the concept and its realization).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/2\/\">\u00a7 2<\/a>:<\/strong> Scientific method: Right is grasped not through definitions imposed from outside but through the immanent development of the concept (deduction).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/3\/\">\u00a7 3<\/a>:<\/strong> Positive law: The distinction between philosophical right and law, which derives its validity from historical circumstances, national character, and application.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/4\/\">\u00a7 4<\/a>:<\/strong> The ground of right: Freedom is the substance of the will; the system of right is the realm of realized freedom.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/5\/\">\u00a7 5<\/a>:<\/strong> First moment of the will (universality): The capacity of the I to abstract from every content (the negative freedom of emptiness).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/6\/\">\u00a7 6<\/a>:<\/strong> Second moment of the will (particularization): The transition to determinacy; the will posits for itself a concrete content (finitude).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/7\/\">\u00a7 7<\/a>:<\/strong> Third moment of the will (individuality): The unity of universality and particularity; the will remains with itself even in its determinacy.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/8\/\">\u00a7 8<\/a>:<\/strong> Formal determinacy: The will as self-consciousness encounters an external world and translates subjective purposes into objectivity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/9\/\">\u00a7 9<\/a>:<\/strong> The content of the will: The will determines itself; its content is a purpose for it (either as representation or as deed).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/10\/\">\u00a7 10<\/a>:<\/strong> The will in itself: In its mere immediacy the will is only the possibility of freedom (not yet in its truth).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/11\/\">\u00a7 11<\/a>:<\/strong> The natural will: Here the content appears as drives, desires, and inclinations, which the human being finds immediately present.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/12\/\">\u00a7 12<\/a>:<\/strong> The resolving will: Only by sublating the indeterminacy of the drives and making a decision does the will become an actual will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/13\/\">\u00a7 13<\/a>:<\/strong> The individuality of the individual: Through resolving, the will sets itself apart, as the willing of a determinate individual, from others.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/14\/\">\u00a7 14<\/a>:<\/strong> The finite will: The I stands reflectively above its content and is capable of choosing among the various drives.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/15\/\">\u00a7 15<\/a>:<\/strong> Arbitrary will (Willk\u00fcr): Freedom as mere choice between given contents; it is contingency and the contradiction of freedom.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/16\/\">\u00a7 16<\/a>:<\/strong> The one-sidedness of choice: Even the particular that is chosen remains something finite; through mere choosing the will does not attain true infinity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/17\/\">\u00a7 17<\/a>:<\/strong> The dialectic of the drives: The drives interfere with one another; the will must subordinate or sacrifice them without any fixed standard (arbitrarily).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/18\/\">\u00a7 18<\/a>:<\/strong> Judgment of nature: The drives are positive (good) as an expression of life, but negative (evil) as a limitation on spiritual freedom.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/19\/\">\u00a7 19<\/a>:<\/strong> The purification of the drives: The demand to free the drives from their natural determinacy and to organize them rationally.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/20\/\">\u00a7 20<\/a>:<\/strong> Happiness: Reflection compares the drives and gathers them into a whole of satisfaction (a universal end).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/21\/\">\u00a7 21<\/a>:<\/strong> The will that is free in and for itself: Freedom becomes its own object; thinking recognizes freedom as the essence of the will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/22\/\">\u00a7 22<\/a>:<\/strong> The infinity of the will: The will is truly infinite because its existence is its own inwardness (itself).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/23\/\">\u00a7 23<\/a>:<\/strong> True freedom: The will relates only to itself and is independent of any external dependency.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/24\/\">\u00a7 24<\/a>:<\/strong> Concrete universality: The will is the immanent Idea of self-consciousness, which reaches over and beyond its own determinations.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/25\/\">\u00a7 25<\/a>:<\/strong> Subjectivity: The will determined as pure I, as arbitrary will, or as the one-sided form of an unexecuted purpose.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/26\/\">\u00a7 26<\/a>:<\/strong> Objectivity: The will determined as a rational system, as immersion in its condition, or as external existence.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/27\/\">\u00a7 27<\/a>:<\/strong> The Idea of the will: The absolute determination of spirit is that its freedom becomes for it an objective, rational object.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/28\/\">\u00a7 28<\/a>:<\/strong> The realization of the Idea: The activity of the will dialectically sublates the contradiction between subjectivity and objectivity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/29\/\">\u00a7 29<\/a>:<\/strong> Definition of right: Every existence that is an existence of the free will is right (freedom as Idea).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/30\/\">\u00a7 30<\/a>:<\/strong> The sanctity of right: Right is sacred because it is the existence of freedom; more concrete stages of spirit carry a higher right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/31\/\">\u00a7 31<\/a>:<\/strong> The dialectic: The scientific method by which the concept organically brings forth its determinations out of itself.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/32\/\">\u00a7 32<\/a>:<\/strong> Concepts and shapes: The logical moments of the development appear in the world as a series of temporal shapes.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/33\/\">\u00a7 33<\/a>:<\/strong> Division of the work: The system is divided into: A. Abstract Right, B. Morality, C. Ethical Life (family, civil society, state).<\/p>\n\n\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n<details>\n<summary>II. Abstract Right (Detailed)<\/summary>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part One: Abstract Right (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/34\/\">34<\/a>\u2013104)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preliminary Concept: Personality (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/34\/\">34<\/a>\u201340)<\/h4>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/34\/\">\u00a7 34<\/a>:<\/strong> The will as individual: The free will here appears in its most immediate form, as abstract I.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/35\/\">\u00a7 35<\/a>:<\/strong> The person: The subject that knows itself as absolutely infinite and universal; the capacity to be a bearer of rights.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/36\/\">\u00a7 36<\/a>:<\/strong> The imperative of right: &#8216;Be a person and respect others as persons.&#8217; (A purely formal command.)<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/37\/\">\u00a7 37<\/a>:<\/strong> The separation of person and particularity: For right, it is initially irrelevant what talents or desires (content) the individual has.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/38\/\">\u00a7 38<\/a>:<\/strong> The thing: Everything that is not a person is something unfree, impersonal, and thus without rights.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/39\/\">\u00a7 39<\/a>:<\/strong> The necessity of embodiment: In order to be actual as a free person, the will must give itself an external sphere (a space in the world).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/40\/\">\u00a7 40<\/a>:<\/strong> Division of abstract right: A. Property, B. Contract, C. Wrong.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">I. Property (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/41\/\">41<\/a>\u201371)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A. The Concept of Property (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/41\/\">41<\/a>\u201353)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/41\/\">\u00a7 41<\/a>:<\/strong> The will places itself into a thing: possession becomes property through the recognition of the will within it.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/42\/\">\u00a7 42<\/a>:<\/strong> The thing as the external: Spirit is the inward, the thing is the absolutely external.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/43\/\">\u00a7 43<\/a>:<\/strong> Spiritual goods as things: talents, branches of knowledge, or inventions can, through externalization, become &#8216;things&#8217; that one can possess.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/44\/\">\u00a7 44<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of appropriation: the human being has the absolute right to appropriate every thing; nature has no will of its own against spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/45\/\">\u00a7 45<\/a>:<\/strong> Possession vs. property: possession is mere physical control (taking hold of something); property is the right to possession.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/46\/\">\u00a7 46<\/a>:<\/strong> Private property: since the person is a single individual, property too must essentially be private (individual).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/47\/\">\u00a7 47<\/a>:<\/strong> Immediate possession of the body: the human being is at first immediately conscious of his own body.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/48\/\">\u00a7 48<\/a>:<\/strong> Taking possession of the body: only through training and labor does spirit truly take possession of its own body.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/49\/\">\u00a7 49<\/a>:<\/strong> The distribution of property: abstract right demands no equality of possessions, only that everyone be able to possess property.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/50\/\">\u00a7 50<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of priority: whoever comes first has the right, since he is the first to place his will into the thing.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/51\/\">\u00a7 51<\/a>:<\/strong> Recognizability: taking possession must be visible to others as an expression of the will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/52\/\">\u00a7 52<\/a>:<\/strong> Form and matter: the will takes possession of the form of the thing; for right, matter is merely the bearer of this form.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B. The Modes of Taking Possession (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/53\/\">53<\/a>\u201358)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/53\/\">\u00a7 53<\/a>:<\/strong> Overview: taking possession occurs through direct physical seizure, through forming, or through mere marking.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/54\/\">\u00a7 54<\/a>:<\/strong> The act of the will: property is not merely a state but an ongoing relation of the will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/55\/\">\u00a7 55<\/a>:<\/strong> Physical seizure: the most direct form (holding something), but spatially very limited.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/56\/\">\u00a7 56<\/a>:<\/strong> Forming: working on a thing (e.g. agriculture or craft); the most spiritual mode of appropriation, since it leaves lasting traces.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/57\/\">\u00a7 57<\/a>:<\/strong> Disposal over living beings: animals are treated as things; slavery is a wrong, because the human being is in himself no thing.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/58\/\">\u00a7 58<\/a>:<\/strong> Marking: the most ideal form (a sign, a boundary stone); the will represents itself through a sign, without physically touching the thing.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C. The Use of the Thing (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/59\/\">59<\/a>\u201364)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/59\/\">\u00a7 59<\/a>:<\/strong> The right to use: property without use would be empty; use is the realization of property.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/60\/\">\u00a7 60<\/a>:<\/strong> Use and substance: through use the thing is altered or consumed.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/61\/\">\u00a7 61<\/a>:<\/strong> Temporally limited use: one can give up the use without losing ownership of the substance (e.g. rent).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/62\/\">\u00a7 62<\/a>:<\/strong> Identity of use and property: if one has total use permanently, one is in fact the owner.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/63\/\">\u00a7 63<\/a>:<\/strong> Value: abstracting from concrete usefulness leads to exchange-value (measurable in money).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/64\/\">\u00a7 64<\/a>:<\/strong> Prescription (lapse): if the will is no longer present in the thing for a long time (non-use), the right of property lapses.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">D. The Relinquishing of Property (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/65\/\">65<\/a>\u201370)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/65\/\">\u00a7 65<\/a>:<\/strong> Freedom to relinquish: I can give a thing away, because it is something external.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/66\/\">\u00a7 66<\/a>:<\/strong> Inalienable goods: my personality, my life, and my freedom of conscience are myself, and can never be rightfully sold.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/67\/\">\u00a7 67<\/a>:<\/strong> Alienation of powers: one can rent out one&#8217;s labor power for a limited time, but not the whole person (the distinction between labor and slavery).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/68\/\">\u00a7 68<\/a>:<\/strong> Intellectual property: the particularity of books\/inventions; the buyer owns the copy but not the right to reproduce it.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/69\/\">\u00a7 69<\/a>:<\/strong> Plagiarism: the violation of the author&#8217;s right to the spiritual form of his expression.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/70\/\">\u00a7 70<\/a>:<\/strong> Moral significance: relinquishment shows that spirit stands above matter.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Transition (\u00a7 71):<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/71\/\">\u00a7 71<\/a>:<\/strong> Property leads to the relation of person to person. The existence of my will no longer lies merely in a thing, but in the will of another person. This is the transition to contract.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">II. Contract (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/72\/\">72<\/a>\u201381)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At this stage, property is no longer merely a one-sided relation to a thing, but is mediated through the will of another.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/72\/\">\u00a7 72<\/a>:<\/strong> Property, as the existence of the will, no longer exists merely in a thing, but in relation to the will of another person.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/73\/\">\u00a7 73<\/a>:<\/strong> Possession is mediated through contract; one possesses something because one has come to an agreement with another about it.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/74\/\">\u00a7 74<\/a>:<\/strong> The essence of contract is the common will. Two persons mutually recognize each other as owners.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/75\/\">\u00a7 75<\/a>:<\/strong> The limit of contract: it applies only to external things. Here Hegel criticizes the idea of a &#8216;social contract&#8217; for the state, since the state is not a mere contractual relation.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/76\/\">\u00a7 76<\/a>:<\/strong> The two sides of contract: the agreement (stipulation) and the performance (realization).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/77\/\">\u00a7 77<\/a>:<\/strong> The thing in contract: it is regarded as a value, which can be exchanged against another thing or performance.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/78\/\">\u00a7 78<\/a>:<\/strong> The transfer of property: through contract, property is ideally transferred, even while physical delivery is still outstanding.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/79\/\">\u00a7 79<\/a>:<\/strong> Contract as formal expression: mere words or a signature make the will objectively valid for others.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/80\/\">\u00a7 80<\/a>:<\/strong> The division of contracts: here Hegel distinguishes, roughly, between gift, exchange (purchase), and service (loan contract).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/81\/\">\u00a7 81<\/a>:<\/strong> The transition to wrong: since contract rests on the particular will (arbitrary will), the possibility arises that this will may diverge from universal right.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">III. Wrong (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/82\/\">82<\/a>\u2013104)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Here the opposition between right in itself (the universal) and the particular will of the individual comes to the fore.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/82\/\">\u00a7 82<\/a>:<\/strong> Definition: wrong is the semblance of right, in which the particular will contradicts universal right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/83\/\">\u00a7 83<\/a>:<\/strong> Three kinds of wrong: 1. unpremeditated wrong, 2. fraud, 3. crime.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A. Unpremeditated Wrong (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/84\/\">84<\/a>\u201386)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/84\/\">\u00a7 84<\/a>:<\/strong> A mere legal dispute: both parties want what is right, but are mistaken about to whom the thing belongs.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/85\/\">\u00a7 85<\/a>:<\/strong> Recognition of right: the conflict remains within the recognition of right as such; a decision is sought through a court.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/86\/\">\u00a7 86<\/a>:<\/strong> Civil proceedings: here the wrong is only a lack of insight, not an evil intent against right.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B. Fraud (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/87\/\">87<\/a>\u201389)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/87\/\">\u00a7 87<\/a>:<\/strong> The semblance of right: the fraudster uses the form of right (e.g. a contract) to violate right at its core.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/88\/\">\u00a7 88<\/a>:<\/strong> Deception: the other is made to believe that right is being done to him, while in truth his will is being violated.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/89\/\">\u00a7 89<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to coercion: in fraud, right is now merely a pretext; the mask falls in the next step.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C. Coercion and Crime (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/90\/\">90<\/a>\u2013104)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/90\/\">\u00a7 90<\/a>:<\/strong> Coercion: the exercise of physical force against the will of a person.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/91\/\">\u00a7 91<\/a>:<\/strong> Vulnerability: because the person has an external existence (body, property), it can be attacked through coercion.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/92\/\">\u00a7 92<\/a>:<\/strong> Crime: the total negation of right. The criminal disregards not merely a single rule, but the principle of right as such.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/93\/\">\u00a7 93<\/a>:<\/strong> The nullity of coercion: coercion is in itself contrary to right; it may be applied only as counter-coercion, to annul a wrong.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/94\/\">\u00a7 94<\/a>:<\/strong> The legal principle of coercion: the use of force against someone who has himself exercised force is lawful (self-defense).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/95\/\">\u00a7 95<\/a>:<\/strong> The violation of right: a crime is an injury directed against the freedom of the person.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/96\/\">\u00a7 96<\/a>:<\/strong> The gravity of the crime: the magnitude of the injury depends on the value of the thing and its significance for personality.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/97\/\">\u00a7 97<\/a>:<\/strong> Punishment: it is the negation of the negation. Crime is the first negation (of right); punishment annuls this and restores right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/98\/\">\u00a7 98<\/a>:<\/strong> Retribution as compensation: in the case of damage to property, punishment can consist in payment of its value.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/99\/\">\u00a7 99<\/a>:<\/strong> The purpose of punishment: Hegel rejects deterrence or reform as the primary justification; punishment is an act of justice in itself.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/100\/\">\u00a7 100<\/a>:<\/strong> The criminal&#8217;s right: by being punished, the criminal is honored as a rational being, whose own deed reacts back upon him as law.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/101\/\">\u00a7 101<\/a>:<\/strong> Retaliation (jus talionis): punishment must correspond to the crime in value and quality (an &#8216;eye for an eye&#8217; in a figurative sense).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/102\/\">\u00a7 102<\/a>:<\/strong> Objective punishment: punishment may not be private revenge, but must be carried out by an impartial power (a court).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/103\/\">\u00a7 103<\/a>:<\/strong> The end of revenge: revenge is itself a new wrong; only punishment by the state ends the cycle of violence.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/104\/\">\u00a7 104<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to morality: through punishment, right is no longer merely external (a thing), but present within the will itself. The will becomes subjective knowledge of right.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n<details>\n<summary>III. Morality (Detailed)<\/summary>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part Two: Morality (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/105\/\">105<\/a>\u2013141)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preliminary Concept: The Moral Standpoint (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/105\/\">105<\/a>\u2013114)<\/h4>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/105\/\">\u00a7 105<\/a>:<\/strong> The will as subject: it is no longer merely immediate (as the person), but reflected into itself.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/106\/\">\u00a7 106<\/a>:<\/strong> Subjectivity as the side of the concept&#8217;s existence; the will is for itself.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/107\/\">\u00a7 107<\/a>:<\/strong> The subjective will as the ground of actions; only what lies in the will counts as one&#8217;s own.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/108\/\">\u00a7 108<\/a>:<\/strong> The action: the expression of the moral will in the external world.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/109\/\">\u00a7 109<\/a>:<\/strong> The opposition of subjectivity and objectivity: acting is the attempt to sublate this opposition.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/110\/\">\u00a7 110<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of the subjective will: it recognizes only what it knows as its own (as rational).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/111\/\">\u00a7 111<\/a>:<\/strong> The goal of morality: that the will should have its own concept (freedom) as its content.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/112\/\">\u00a7 112<\/a>:<\/strong> The externality of action: as soon as the will acts, it enters the sphere of contingency and the laws of nature.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/113\/\">\u00a7 113<\/a>:<\/strong> The deed as a change in the world: the will is responsible for the changes it has brought about.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/114\/\">\u00a7 114<\/a>:<\/strong> Division of morality: 1. Purpose and Responsibility, 2. Intention and Welfare, 3. The Good and Conscience.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">I. Purpose and Responsibility (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/115\/\">115<\/a>\u2013118)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This concerns what a subject can be held accountable for at all.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/115\/\">\u00a7 115<\/a>:<\/strong> The finitude of acting: the will finds material at hand upon which it acts.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/116\/\">\u00a7 116<\/a>:<\/strong> Responsibility (imputation): the subject is responsible for a deed insofar as it was his purpose.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/117\/\">\u00a7 117<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of knowledge: the subject acknowledges as his action only those moments of the deed that he knew in his purpose.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/118\/\">\u00a7 118<\/a>:<\/strong> The consequences of the deed: the subject bears responsibility for the necessary consequences, but not for external, contingent interferences.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">II. Intention and Welfare (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/119\/\">119<\/a>\u2013128)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Here the action is judged according to its purpose and its value for the subject.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/119\/\">\u00a7 119<\/a>:<\/strong> From deed to intention: the action is considered as a universal principle (what do I actually want to achieve by it?).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/120\/\">\u00a7 120<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of intention: the action should make sense for the subject and fulfill his purpose.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/121\/\">\u00a7 121<\/a>:<\/strong> The particularity of the action: in the action, the subject seeks its own satisfaction.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/122\/\">\u00a7 122<\/a>:<\/strong> Means and end: the will uses things and circumstances as means for its intention.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/123\/\">\u00a7 123<\/a>:<\/strong> Subjective interest: every deed requires a driving force within the subject (interest).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/124\/\">\u00a7 124<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of subjectivity: it is a right of the human being that he find his honor and his happiness in his own doing.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/125\/\">\u00a7 125<\/a>:<\/strong> Welfare: the sum of the subject&#8217;s particular ends; the striving for happiness.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/126\/\">\u00a7 126<\/a>:<\/strong> Collision of right and welfare: welfare may not violate abstract right (property), but it has its own validity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/127\/\">\u00a7 127<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of necessity: in extreme danger to life, abstract right recedes (stealing a loaf of bread to save one&#8217;s life is not an ordinary crime).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/128\/\">\u00a7 128<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to the good: when welfare is no longer merely my private welfare but a universal one, it becomes the good.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">III. The Good and Conscience (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/129\/\">129<\/a>\u2013141)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This is the high point of morality, but also the point at which it turns over into its opposite.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/129\/\">\u00a7 129<\/a>:<\/strong> The good: the unity of abstract right and welfare; realized freedom as the absolute final end of the world.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/130\/\">\u00a7 130<\/a>:<\/strong> Duty: the will ought to do the good. It is the necessity of acting in accordance with the concept.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/131\/\">\u00a7 131<\/a>:<\/strong> The subject&#8217;s right to insight: I am obligated to do only what I recognize as rational and good.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/132\/\">\u00a7 132<\/a>:<\/strong> Conscience: the innermost conviction of the subject as to what is right and duty.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/133\/\">\u00a7 133<\/a>:<\/strong> Formal certainty: conscience tells me &#8216;do what is right,&#8217; but it does not yet say concretely what is right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/134\/\">\u00a7 134<\/a>:<\/strong> The fulfillment of duty: the subject must find a concrete content, so as not to remain stuck in the abstract.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/135\/\">\u00a7 135<\/a>:<\/strong> Critique of Kant: Hegel criticizes the &#8216;categorical imperative&#8217; because it remains empty (formal identity without concrete content).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/136\/\">\u00a7 136<\/a>:<\/strong> True conscience: the agreement of subjective disposition with the objective good.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/137\/\">\u00a7 137<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of conscience: it is the highest stage of moral freedom, to act according to one&#8217;s own knowledge.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/138\/\">\u00a7 138<\/a>:<\/strong> The danger of subjectivity: conscience can turn against objective right and make itself the standard.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/139\/\">\u00a7 139<\/a>:<\/strong> Evil: the arbitrary will that raises itself above the universal; the conscious decision against what is rational.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/140\/\">\u00a7 140<\/a>:<\/strong> The forms of moral aberration: here Hegel analyzes hypocrisy, probabilism, the &#8216;good intention&#8217; as an excuse, and irony.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/141\/\">\u00a7 141<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to ethical life: since conscience alone cannot guarantee the content of the good, it must embody itself in stable, objective institutions (family, state).<\/p>\n\n\n<\/details>\n\n\n\n<details>\n<summary>IV. Ethical Life (Detailed)<\/summary>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">Part Three: Ethical Life (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/142\/\">142<\/a>\u2013360)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preliminary Concept: Ethical Life (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/142\/\">142<\/a>\u2013157)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Here Hegel explains how the subjective and the objective work together in a living unity.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/142\/\">\u00a7 142<\/a>:<\/strong> Ethical life is the Idea of freedom; it is the living good will that has its existence in the world of institutions.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/143\/\">\u00a7 143<\/a>:<\/strong> It is the unity of the subjective will and the concept of right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/144\/\">\u00a7 144<\/a>:<\/strong> Ethical substance is the system of laws and institutions that carry absolute authority for the individual.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/145\/\">\u00a7 145<\/a>:<\/strong> These laws are not alien, but the individual&#8217;s own essence of spirit (they are &#8216;spirit of its spirit&#8217;).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/146\/\">\u00a7 146<\/a>:<\/strong> The recognition of the ethical powers: the individual recognizes in them its own substance.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/147\/\">\u00a7 147<\/a>:<\/strong> The individual&#8217;s relation to substance is a relation of trust.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/148\/\">\u00a7 148<\/a>:<\/strong> Duty: in ethical life, duty loses its character of compulsion, since it is the individual&#8217;s own essence.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/149\/\">\u00a7 149<\/a>:<\/strong> Duty frees the human being from dependence on mere drives and subjective arbitrariness.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/150\/\">\u00a7 150<\/a>:<\/strong> Virtue: ethical life as it shows itself in the character of an individual as firm conduct.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/151\/\">\u00a7 151<\/a>:<\/strong> Ethical life as second nature: through habit, rational acting becomes the nature of the human being.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/152\/\">\u00a7 152<\/a>:<\/strong> Objective ethical life takes the place of mere moral conscience.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/153\/\">\u00a7 153<\/a>:<\/strong> The individual finds his right and his freedom in being a member of an ethical whole.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/154\/\">\u00a7 154<\/a>:<\/strong> Trust as the subjective disposition within ethical life.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/155\/\">\u00a7 155<\/a>:<\/strong> The ethical is the universal; it pervades all the actions of the individual.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/156\/\">\u00a7 156<\/a>:<\/strong> Ethical substance as the true, real spirit of a people.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/157\/\">\u00a7 157<\/a>:<\/strong> Division of ethical life:<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The family (immediate ethical life),<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">civil society (the stage of separation\/particularity),<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">the state (concrete universality).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">I. The Family (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/158\/\">158<\/a>\u2013181)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The family is &#8216;natural ethical life.&#8217; Its principle is love.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A. Marriage (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/161\/\">161<\/a>\u2013169)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/158\/\">\u00a7 158<\/a>:<\/strong> Love as spirit: within the family, one is no longer a separate person for oneself, but part of a whole.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/159\/\">\u00a7 159<\/a>:<\/strong> The family as a single person: the members surrender their individual personality within the unity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/160\/\">\u00a7 160<\/a>:<\/strong> Moments of the family: marriage, the family&#8217;s resources, and the upbringing of children.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/161\/\">\u00a7 161<\/a>:<\/strong> Marriage: it is ethical love. It begins as a contract, but through love it sublates the contractual character (the merely legal aspect).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/162\/\">\u00a7 162<\/a>:<\/strong> The transition to marriage: it should not rest on mere drive, but on a free, conscious consent to the bond.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/163\/\">\u00a7 163<\/a>:<\/strong> The conclusion of marriage: the act of consent makes marriage into an ethical relationship.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/164\/\">\u00a7 164<\/a>:<\/strong> The solemn ceremony: recognition of the marriage by the community\/the state is what first makes it an objective right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/165\/\">\u00a7 165<\/a>:<\/strong> Monogamy: since marriage requires the total surrender of the person, it can exist only between two persons.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/166\/\">\u00a7 166<\/a>:<\/strong> The difference of the sexes: the man has his essence more in the state and in work, the woman in the family and piety.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/167\/\">\u00a7 167<\/a>:<\/strong> Indissolubility: in the Idea, marriage is indissoluble, since it rests on an absolute ethical bond.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/168\/\">\u00a7 168<\/a>:<\/strong> Prohibitions on marriage: marriage may not be contracted within the circle of blood relations (the prohibition of incest), since here love is already &#8216;naturally&#8217; present rather than first grounded ethically.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/169\/\">\u00a7 169<\/a>:<\/strong> The end of marriage as mere feeling: the goal is the transformation of love into a stable, lasting institution.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">B. The Family&#8217;s Resources (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/170\/\">170<\/a>\u2013172)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/170\/\">\u00a7 170<\/a>:<\/strong> Resources: the family needs a common external existence (possessions).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/171\/\">\u00a7 171<\/a>:<\/strong> The head of the family: the husband represents the family&#8217;s resources externally, but they belong to the family as a whole.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/172\/\">\u00a7 172<\/a>:<\/strong> Acquisition and care: labor serves to maintain this common ethical ground.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">C. The Upbringing of Children and the Dissolution of the Family (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/173\/\">173<\/a>\u2013181)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/173\/\">\u00a7 173<\/a>:<\/strong> Children: in them the unity of the parents becomes objective and perceptible. They are &#8216;flesh of flesh.&#8217;<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/174\/\">\u00a7 174<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of upbringing: children have a right to an upbringing; they are not things belonging to the parents, but persons free in themselves.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/175\/\">\u00a7 175<\/a>:<\/strong> The aim of upbringing: to lead children to independence and to ethical freedom, so that they can found families of their own.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/176\/\">\u00a7 176<\/a>:<\/strong> The dissolution of marriage: as a matter of fact, marriage can end through divorce, when the ethical bond (love) has been irreparably destroyed.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/177\/\">\u00a7 177<\/a>:<\/strong> Death and inheritance: with the death of the parents, the family as an immediate unity dissolves.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/178\/\">\u00a7 178<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of inheritance: the family&#8217;s resources remain within the family and pass to the children.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/179\/\">\u00a7 179<\/a>:<\/strong> The will (testament): Hegel takes a critical view of the right to arbitrary testaments; the children&#8217;s right of inheritance is more substantial than the parents&#8217; arbitrary will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/180\/\">\u00a7 180<\/a>:<\/strong> Coming of age: children step out of the family as new, independent persons.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/181\/\">\u00a7 181<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to civil society: when many families, as independent units, confront one another, the &#8216;system of needs&#8217; arises.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">II. Civil Society (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/182\/\">182<\/a>\u2013256)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For Hegel, this section is the stage of difference. Whereas the family is an immediate unity, in civil society individuals emerge as independent, self-interested persons. It is the &#8216;system of needs,&#8217; in which each is for himself, yet remains unconsciously bound to all others through labor and the market.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preliminary Concept (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/182\/\">182<\/a>\u2013188)<\/h4>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/182\/\">\u00a7 182<\/a>:<\/strong> The concrete person: the individual as a whole of needs and arbitrary will, for whom his own particular end is the highest thing (egoism).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/183\/\">\u00a7 183<\/a>:<\/strong> Particularity and universality: I can achieve my own end only by relating myself to others; in this way a universal, all-round dependence arises.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/184\/\">\u00a7 184<\/a>:<\/strong> Civil society as the realm of division: here spirit steps outside its unity; luxury and misery exist side by side.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/185\/\">\u00a7 185<\/a>:<\/strong> The contradiction of civil society: the satisfaction of needs is boundless and tends toward the destruction of ethical life.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/186\/\">\u00a7 186<\/a>:<\/strong> Formal education (Bildung): in order for needs to be satisfied, the human being must learn to conduct himself in a universal manner (the formation of the understanding).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/187\/\">\u00a7 187<\/a>:<\/strong> The individual as &#8216;son of civil society&#8217;: he is no longer merely a member of a family, but stands within a worldwide network of labor.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/188\/\">\u00a7 188<\/a>:<\/strong> Division:<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A. The System of Needs * B. The Administration of Justice * C. The Police and the Corporation<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">A. The System of Needs (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/189\/\">189<\/a>\u2013208)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a) The Kind of Need and Satisfaction (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/190\/\">190<\/a>\u2013195)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/189\/\">\u00a7 189<\/a>:<\/strong> The satisfaction of the particular through the mediation of the universal.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/190\/\">\u00a7 190<\/a>:<\/strong> Animal versus human needs: the human being multiplies his needs and refines them (culture).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/191\/\">\u00a7 191<\/a>:<\/strong> The social component: needs arise through comparison with others.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/192\/\">\u00a7 192<\/a>:<\/strong> Convenience: technology and labor make satisfaction ever easier and more refined.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/193\/\">\u00a7 193<\/a>:<\/strong> Social ambition: the craving for recognition through consumption.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/194\/\">\u00a7 194<\/a>:<\/strong> Liberation through consumption: the human being makes himself independent of mere nature by subjugating it.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/195\/\">\u00a7 195<\/a>:<\/strong> The opposition of wealth and poverty as a necessary result of the logic of the market.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">b) The Kind of Labor (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/196\/\">196<\/a>\u2013198)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/196\/\">\u00a7 196<\/a>:<\/strong> Labor: the mediation between need and thing; the human being gives matter a human form.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/197\/\">\u00a7 197<\/a>:<\/strong> The division of labor: through specialization, labor becomes simpler, more abstract, and more productive.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/198\/\">\u00a7 198<\/a>:<\/strong> The machine: once labor becomes entirely mechanical, the human being can delegate it to machines.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">c) Resources and the Estates (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/199\/\">199<\/a>\u2013208)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/199\/\">\u00a7 199<\/a>:<\/strong> Universal resources: the labor of all forms a common pool from which everyone draws.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/200\/\">\u00a7 200<\/a>:<\/strong> Inequality: since talents and industriousness differ, inequality of resources is unavoidable.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/201\/\">\u00a7 201<\/a>:<\/strong> The estates (classes): the division of society according to the kind of labor performed.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/202\/\">\u00a7 202<\/a>:<\/strong> The three estates:<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The substantial estate (farmers).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The estate of trade and industry (craftsmen, merchants).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The universal estate (civil servants).<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/203\/\">\u00a7 203<\/a>:<\/strong> The substantial estate: its life is shaped by nature, by the land, and by family love.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/204\/\">\u00a7 204<\/a>:<\/strong> The estate of trade and industry: it rests on reflection, education, and the exchange of goods.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/205\/\">\u00a7 205<\/a>:<\/strong> The universal estate: its purpose is the welfare of the universal, and for this it is maintained by the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/206\/\">\u00a7 206<\/a>:<\/strong> Choice of estate: the individual&#8217;s right to choose his own estate (as opposed to a caste system).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/207\/\">\u00a7 207<\/a>:<\/strong> The honor of one&#8217;s estate: an individual&#8217;s sense of self-worth depends on being a recognized member of an estate.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/208\/\">\u00a7 208<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to the administration of justice: right must now hold as law, equally for all.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">B. The Administration of Justice (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/209\/\">209<\/a>\u2013229)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In civil society, abstract right becomes concrete law.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/209\/\">\u00a7 209<\/a>:<\/strong> Recognition of right: in civil society, the human being is recognized as a &#8216;human being,&#8217; independent of his estate.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/210\/\">\u00a7 210<\/a>:<\/strong> Right must be known objectively.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/211\/\">\u00a7 211<\/a>:<\/strong> Law: right must be fixed in writing so that it is recognizable to everyone (codification).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/212\/\">\u00a7 212<\/a>:<\/strong> Legal validity: in civil society, only the law is binding.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/213\/\">\u00a7 213<\/a>:<\/strong> Positive law: the application of rational right to the contingent details of actuality.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/214\/\">\u00a7 214<\/a>:<\/strong> The determinacy of the law: it must lay down clear measures and penalties.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/215\/\">\u00a7 215<\/a>:<\/strong> Promulgation: a law is just only if it is public and comprehensible.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/216\/\">\u00a7 216<\/a>:<\/strong> Legal certainty: trust that the law will remain stable.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/217\/\">\u00a7 217<\/a>:<\/strong> The judge: the personification of the law, who subsumes the particular under the universal.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/218\/\">\u00a7 218<\/a>:<\/strong> The gravity of an offense: in a stable society, a crime is punished more mildly than in an unstable one.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/219\/\">\u00a7 219<\/a>:<\/strong> The court: the public institution for the enforcement of right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/220\/\">\u00a7 220<\/a>:<\/strong> Justice as a service that society renders to the individual.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/221\/\">\u00a7 221<\/a>:<\/strong> Civil proceedings: the formal clarification of legal claims.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/222\/\">\u00a7 222<\/a>:<\/strong> The burden of proof: the rational ascertainment of the truth in a trial.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/223\/\">\u00a7 223<\/a>:<\/strong> Transparency: the trial must proceed according to fixed rules.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/224\/\">\u00a7 224<\/a>:<\/strong> Publicity: judicial proceedings must be public, so that citizens have trust in justice.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/225\/\">\u00a7 225<\/a>:<\/strong> The separation of the facts of the case from the question of law.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/226\/\">\u00a7 226<\/a>:<\/strong> The jury: the citizen&#8217;s right to be judged on the facts by his equals.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/227\/\">\u00a7 227<\/a>:<\/strong> The judge&#8217;s conviction must rest on objective grounds.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/228\/\">\u00a7 228<\/a>:<\/strong> Equality before the law.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/229\/\">\u00a7 229<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to the police: right protects only what already exists; the police must take on responsibility for the provident protection of welfare.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">C. The Police and the Corporation (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/230\/\">230<\/a>\u2013256)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Civil society must protect itself against contingency and poverty.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/230\/\">\u00a7 230<\/a>:<\/strong> The transition to the police: whereas in the administration of justice, right becomes active only once it has been violated (reactively), there now arises the necessity of protecting the right and welfare of individuals in a provident, preventive way. The right to security and subsistence becomes a general concern of society.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a) The Police (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/231\/\">231<\/a>\u2013249) Note: for Hegel, &#8216;police&#8217; means the entire public administration and provision of public welfare.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/231\/\">\u00a7 231<\/a>:<\/strong> External order: the protection of property and security.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/232\/\">\u00a7 232<\/a>:<\/strong> Oversight of public security.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/233\/\">\u00a7 233<\/a>:<\/strong> Market regulation: the police ensure that trade and commerce function smoothly.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/234\/\">\u00a7 234<\/a>:<\/strong> Provision against fraud: the control of weights, measures, and the quality of goods.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/235\/\">\u00a7 235<\/a>:<\/strong> Public infrastructure: roads, bridges, lighting.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/236\/\">\u00a7 236<\/a>:<\/strong> Public health: provision against disease and epidemics.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/237\/\">\u00a7 237<\/a>:<\/strong> Market instability: the police must intervene when the market shows excessive fluctuations.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/238\/\">\u00a7 238<\/a>:<\/strong> Education: society takes on the task of educating individuals when the family fails.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/239\/\">\u00a7 239<\/a>:<\/strong> Protecting the individual from his own arbitrary will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/240\/\">\u00a7 240<\/a>:<\/strong> General oversight of the family.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/241\/\">\u00a7 241<\/a>:<\/strong> Poor relief: society is obligated to provide for the poor.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/242\/\">\u00a7 242<\/a>:<\/strong> The limits of private charity: assistance must be carried out through public institutions, in order to be legally secure.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/243\/\">\u00a7 243<\/a>:<\/strong> The production of the rabble: civil society necessarily produces a class of people who have needs but cannot find work.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/244\/\">\u00a7 244<\/a>:<\/strong> The danger of the rabble: when poverty leads to indignation against society, it becomes dangerous.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/245\/\">\u00a7 245<\/a>:<\/strong> The insolubility of the problem of poverty: Hegel recognizes that civil society cannot resolve the problem of poverty out of itself.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/246\/\">\u00a7 246<\/a>:<\/strong> Colonization: society must expand outward in order to find new markets.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/247\/\">\u00a7 247<\/a>:<\/strong> The sea as a trade route: the sea connects peoples and furthers the world spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/248\/\">\u00a7 248<\/a>:<\/strong> The founding of colonies as an outlet for the surplus of people and goods.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/249\/\">\u00a7 249<\/a>:<\/strong> The police as the connecting link between private, civic advantage and the universal interest.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">b) The Corporation (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/250\/\">250<\/a>\u2013256)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/250\/\">\u00a7 250<\/a>:<\/strong> The corporation (professional association): the estate of trade and industry organizes itself into corporations.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/251\/\">\u00a7 251<\/a>:<\/strong> Professional identity: the individual finds his social home within the corporation.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/252\/\">\u00a7 252<\/a>:<\/strong> The corporation as a &#8216;second family&#8217;: it provides protection and solidarity in the case of illness or unemployment.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/253\/\">\u00a7 253<\/a>:<\/strong> The honor and dignity of one&#8217;s estate: through the corporation, the individual&#8217;s labor is socially recognized.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/254\/\">\u00a7 254<\/a>:<\/strong> Oversight of qualifications: the corporation guarantees the quality of the work.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/255\/\">\u00a7 255<\/a>:<\/strong> A preliminary stage of the state: within the corporation, the citizen learns to act, beyond his own self-interest, for a common goal.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/256\/\">\u00a7 256<\/a>:<\/strong> Transition to the state: civil society finds its conscious unity in the state.<\/p>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">III. The State (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/257\/\">257<\/a>\u2013360)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Preliminary Concept: The Essence of the State (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/257\/\">257<\/a>\u2013259)<\/h4>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/257\/\">\u00a7 257<\/a>:<\/strong> The state as the actuality of the ethical Idea; the spirit that unfolds itself in the world as will and knowledge.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/258\/\">\u00a7 258<\/a>:<\/strong> The state as rational in and for itself: it is not a means to an end, but the absolute end in itself. It is the union of the universal end and individual interest.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/259\/\">\u00a7 259<\/a>:<\/strong> The Idea of the state has:<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a) Immediate actuality (internal constitutional law).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">b) Its relation to other states (external constitutional law).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">c) The stage of the world spirit (world history).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">A. Internal Constitutional Law (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/260\/\">260<\/a>\u2013329)<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">1. The Internal Constitution as Such (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/260\/\">260<\/a>\u2013271) Here Hegel describes the organic interplay between citizens and the state.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/260\/\">\u00a7 260<\/a>:<\/strong> The principle of the modern state: the unity of subjective freedom and the objective order of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/261\/\">\u00a7 261<\/a>:<\/strong> The unity of duty and right: what is a duty for the state is a right for the citizen (and vice versa).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/262\/\">\u00a7 262<\/a>:<\/strong> Mediation through family and civil society: the state needs these spheres as its foundation.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/263\/\">\u00a7 263<\/a>:<\/strong> The transformation of interest: private welfare becomes, within the state, a universal end.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/264\/\">\u00a7 264<\/a>:<\/strong> The knowledge of the substantial: citizens know themselves, within the state, to be in their own essence.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/265\/\">\u00a7 265<\/a>:<\/strong> Institutions as pillars of freedom: they guarantee that the state is not arbitrary.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/266\/\">\u00a7 266<\/a>:<\/strong> Spirit as knowledge: the state is a conscious structure, not a blind fate.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/267\/\">\u00a7 267<\/a>:<\/strong> Patriotism (political disposition): the citizen&#8217;s trust in the state as his own foundation.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/268\/\">\u00a7 268<\/a>:<\/strong> Political consciousness: the habit of regarding the commonwealth as the basis of one&#8217;s life.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/269\/\">\u00a7 269<\/a>:<\/strong> The organization of the state: spirit organically articulates itself into different powers.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/270\/\">\u00a7 270<\/a>:<\/strong> State and religion: religion provides inner depth, but the state is the external, legal actuality. The state protects freedom of religion, but must not allow itself to be ruled by religious arbitrariness.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/271\/\">\u00a7 271<\/a>:<\/strong> The constitution as the organization of the powers of the state.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">2. The Division of Powers (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/272\/\">272<\/a>\u2013297) Hegel rejects a rigid separation of powers (checks and balances) and calls instead for an organic articulation.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/272\/\">\u00a7 272<\/a>:<\/strong> The differentiation of the powers: they are not separate, but parts of a living whole.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a) The power of the crown.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">b) The power of government.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">c) The legislative power.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/274\/\">\u00a7 274<\/a>:<\/strong> The sovereignty of the state: the power of the state to decide on and over itself.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">a) The Power of the Crown (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/275\/\">275<\/a>\u2013286) The prince (monarch) is the &#8216;point,&#8217; the final &#8216;I&#8217; that makes the decision.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/275\/\">\u00a7 275<\/a>:<\/strong> The monarch: he represents the unity of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/276\/\">\u00a7 276<\/a>:<\/strong> The ideality of the members of the state: in the prince, the multiplicity of the state finds its apex.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/277\/\">\u00a7 277<\/a>:<\/strong> Office and person: in the modern state, an office is not bound to the private person, except in the case of the monarch.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/278\/\">\u00a7 278<\/a>:<\/strong> Sovereignty internally: the subordination of all particular rights to the welfare of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/279\/\">\u00a7 279<\/a>:<\/strong> The subjective &#8216;I will&#8217;: the monarch places the final point beneath the laws and deliberations.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/280\/\">\u00a7 280<\/a>:<\/strong> Hereditary monarchy: so that the choice of head of state is not subject to arbitrary will or party strife, it must be fixed naturally (through birth).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/281\/\">\u00a7 281<\/a>:<\/strong> The inviolability of the monarch: he is the neutral point above the day-to-day political business.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/282\/\">\u00a7 282<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of pardon: the monarch can mitigate the law and let mercy prevail over right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/283\/\">\u00a7 283<\/a>:<\/strong> The appointment of ministers: the prince chooses his advisors.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/284\/\">\u00a7 284<\/a>:<\/strong> The responsibility of the ministers: it is not the monarch who is politically responsible, but the executive government.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/285\/\">\u00a7 285<\/a>:<\/strong> The government as the executive organ.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/286\/\">\u00a7 286<\/a>:<\/strong> The securing of the constitution through loyalty to the monarch.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">b) The Power of Government (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/287\/\">287<\/a>\u2013297) This concerns administration and the civil service.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/287\/\">\u00a7 287<\/a>:<\/strong> The executive: the application of the law to the particular case.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/288\/\">\u00a7 288<\/a>:<\/strong> The tasks of the police and the corporations within the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/289\/\">\u00a7 289<\/a>:<\/strong> The civil servants: they form the core of the &#8216;universal estate.&#8217;<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/290\/\">\u00a7 290<\/a>:<\/strong> The division of administrative business: specialized ministries and authorities.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/291\/\">\u00a7 291<\/a>:<\/strong> Access to the civil service: every citizen can become a civil servant (the principle of merit).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/292\/\">\u00a7 292<\/a>:<\/strong> The filling of posts: examination and qualification rather than arbitrary appointment.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/293\/\">\u00a7 293<\/a>:<\/strong> Remuneration: civil servants must be economically independent in order to remain impartial.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/294\/\">\u00a7 294<\/a>:<\/strong> The service relationship as an ethical bond, not a mere contract.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/295\/\">\u00a7 295<\/a>:<\/strong> Control of administration: protecting citizens from arbitrariness through a hierarchy of appeal.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/296\/\">\u00a7 296<\/a>:<\/strong> The ethics of the civil service: objectivity, a sense of duty, and education.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/297\/\">\u00a7 297<\/a>:<\/strong> Government as the connecting link between prince and people.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">c) The Legislative Power (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/298\/\">298<\/a>\u2013320)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The legislative power is the power to determine the laws as such and to regulate the internal affairs of the state that concern everyone.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/298\/\">\u00a7 298<\/a>:<\/strong> Definition: the legislative power concerns the laws as such, and those internal affairs which, in their content, are wholly universal.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/299\/\">\u00a7 299<\/a>:<\/strong> The content of legislation: on the one hand it determines what the state demands from citizens (services\/contributions), and on the other, the rights of citizens vis-\u00e0-vis the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/300\/\">\u00a7 300<\/a>:<\/strong> The cooperation of the powers: legislation is not an isolated power; the monarch has the final decision, and the power of government contributes its expert knowledge.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/301\/\">\u00a7 301<\/a>:<\/strong> The estates element: the participation of private persons in legislation takes place through deputies of the estates. Hegel emphasizes that the people should not act as an &#8216;unorganized mass.&#8217;<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/302\/\">\u00a7 302<\/a>:<\/strong> The purpose of the estates: they serve as mediators between the government and the people, dissolved into its particular circles.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/303\/\">\u00a7 303<\/a>:<\/strong> Organic articulation: the estates rest on the articulation of civil society (the circles of the corporations and professions).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/304\/\">\u00a7 304<\/a>:<\/strong> The bicameral division of the Assembly of Estates: to avoid one-sidedness, the assembly is divided into two chambers.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Two Chambers of the Estates (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/305\/\">305<\/a>\u2013313)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/305\/\">\u00a7 305<\/a>:<\/strong> The substantial estate (nobility\/landowners): it forms the first chamber. Its position rests on landed property and, through primogeniture (hereditary succession), is independent of the state treasury and market fluctuations.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/306\/\">\u00a7 306<\/a>:<\/strong> The political role of the nobility: it is the born mediator between throne and people, since it possesses a natural firmness.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/307\/\">\u00a7 307<\/a>:<\/strong> Independence: this estate needs no election; it is called to participation in state power through its social position.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/308\/\">\u00a7 308<\/a>:<\/strong> The estate of trade and industry: it sends deputies to the second chamber. These are elected from the corporations and communities.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/309\/\">\u00a7 309<\/a>:<\/strong> Deputation rather than direct election: it is not every single individual who votes directly (which would lead to atomization), but the organized communities that send representatives.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/310\/\">\u00a7 310<\/a>:<\/strong> The qualification of deputies: they must possess expert knowledge and a disposition that keeps the universal welfare in view.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/311\/\">\u00a7 311<\/a>:<\/strong> The representation of interests: deputies represent the particular interests of their own spheres of life (trade, craft, etc.), which they know best.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/312\/\">\u00a7 312<\/a>:<\/strong> Deliberation: in the assembly, particular interests are raised to universal insight.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/313\/\">\u00a7 313<\/a>:<\/strong> The publicity of debates: sessions must be public, so that the people learn how affairs of state are handled.<\/p>\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Public Opinion (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/314\/\">314<\/a>\u2013320)<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/314\/\">\u00a7 314<\/a>:<\/strong> Political education: through the Assembly of Estates, the public is instructed about the purposes of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/315\/\">\u00a7 315<\/a>:<\/strong> Public opinion: it is the way in which the people think and pass judgment about universal affairs.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/316\/\">\u00a7 316<\/a>:<\/strong> The essence of public opinion: it contains both the eternal, substantial truths of reason and an infinite amount of prejudice, unreason, and contingency.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/317\/\">\u00a7 317<\/a>:<\/strong> The paradox of public opinion: &#8216;It deserves to be as much respected as despised.&#8217; One respects the kernel of truth within it, but despises its superficial form.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/318\/\">\u00a7 318<\/a>:<\/strong> The true statesman: he is the one who listens to public opinion, but does what it, at its core, actually wants, without following its fickle moods.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/319\/\">\u00a7 319<\/a>:<\/strong> Freedom of the press: Hegel supports it, but also emphasizes legal responsibility for defamation and incitement against the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/320\/\">\u00a7 320<\/a>:<\/strong> Subjectivity and the state: subjective freedom finds its expression in public opinion, but must measure itself against the objective rationality of the state.<\/p>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">3. Sovereignty Abroad (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/321\/\">321<\/a>\u2013329)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The state is an individuality, and as such it confronts other states.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/321\/\">\u00a7 321<\/a>:<\/strong> The state as real individuality: it is an exclusive one, which delimits itself against others.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/322\/\">\u00a7 322<\/a>:<\/strong> Sovereignty: it shows itself in the fact that the state is externally independent and asserts its own identity.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/323\/\">\u00a7 323<\/a>:<\/strong> The relation to other states: it is marked by recognition, but also by potential hostility.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/324\/\">\u00a7 324<\/a>:<\/strong> War: Hegel regards it as a moment that preserves the &#8216;ethical health&#8217; of peoples, by preventing ossification in purely private prosperity (functional equivalents are possible at more developed stages).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/325\/\">\u00a7 325<\/a>:<\/strong> Sacrifice for the whole: in war, the nullity of finite goods (life and property) is demonstrated in the face of the infinity of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/326\/\">\u00a7 326<\/a>:<\/strong> State power in war: in times of emergency, all power concentrates in the monarch as the point of decision that saves the situation.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/327\/\">\u00a7 327<\/a>:<\/strong> Valor: the disposition to stake one&#8217;s own life for the freedom of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/328\/\">\u00a7 328<\/a>:<\/strong> Formal versus substantial valor: it is not a matter of mere love of adventure, but of service to a rational cause.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/329\/\">\u00a7 329<\/a>:<\/strong> Command: the power of the crown decides on war and peace and leads the military.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">B. External Constitutional Law (International Law) (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/330\/\">330<\/a>\u2013340)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This concerns the &#8216;treaties&#8217; between sovereign powers.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/330\/\">\u00a7 330<\/a>:<\/strong> International law rests on the relation of independent states to one another.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/331\/\">\u00a7 331<\/a>:<\/strong> Recognition: a state is such only when it is recognized as sovereign by others.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/332\/\">\u00a7 332<\/a>:<\/strong> The treaty between states: the means of exchange between states.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/333\/\">\u00a7 333<\/a>:<\/strong> The problem of international law: since there is no &#8216;super-state&#8217; (no world praetor), international law rests only on the will of states. Pacta sunt servanda holds, but only so long as it serves the welfare of the state.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/334\/\">\u00a7 334<\/a>:<\/strong> Dispute and war: when wills collide and no treaty helps, war is the sole means of decision.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/335\/\">\u00a7 335<\/a>:<\/strong> The ground for war: an injury to honor or right suffices as a ground for war.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/336\/\">\u00a7 336<\/a>:<\/strong> The highest law: the welfare of the state is the supreme criterion in foreign policy.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/337\/\">\u00a7 337<\/a>:<\/strong> Diplomacy: states interact through envoys and recognize one another as legal subjects even in conflict.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/338\/\">\u00a7 338<\/a>:<\/strong> Jus in bello (the law of war): war, as a moment of reason, must be conducted in such a way that a later peace remains possible (sparing civilians and private property).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/339\/\">\u00a7 339<\/a>:<\/strong> Prisoners and private persons: war is waged between states (the military), not against individuals.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/340\/\">\u00a7 340<\/a>:<\/strong> The transition to history: since states have no judge over them, their verdict is world history.<\/p>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-medium-font-size\">C. World History (\u00a7\u00a7 <a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/341\/\">341<\/a>\u2013360)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Hegel regards history as progress in the consciousness and the realization of freedom.<\/p>\n\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/341\/\">\u00a7 341<\/a>:<\/strong> World history is the world&#8217;s court of judgment: the world spirit decides on the right of peoples.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/342\/\">\u00a7 342<\/a>:<\/strong> The world spirit stands above the right of individual states; it uses them as its instruments.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/343\/\">\u00a7 343<\/a>:<\/strong> Spirit as the actual: history is the unfolding of spirit toward self-knowledge.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/344\/\">\u00a7 344<\/a>:<\/strong> Peoples as organs: each people has an era in which it represents the world spirit.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/345\/\">\u00a7 345<\/a>:<\/strong> Dominant peoples: at any one time, only a single people can be the world-historically leading one.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/346\/\">\u00a7 346<\/a>:<\/strong> The stages of development: history proceeds according to a necessary rationality.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/347\/\">\u00a7 347<\/a>:<\/strong> The world-historical people: it has the right to carry forward the principles of freedom.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/348\/\">\u00a7 348<\/a>:<\/strong> Spirit works &#8216;behind the backs&#8217; of the actors (the cunning of reason).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/349\/\">\u00a7 349<\/a>:<\/strong> The right of the world spirit is the absolutely highest right.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/350\/\">\u00a7 350<\/a>:<\/strong> Civilization versus barbarism: peoples with a higher ethical organization have a right against unorganized peoples.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/351\/\">\u00a7 351<\/a>:<\/strong> The task of the state in history: to bring spirit into an objective shape.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/352\/\">\u00a7 352<\/a>:<\/strong> The four realms of world history:<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/353\/\">\u00a7 353<\/a>:<\/strong> Criterion of the realms: how much freedom has been realized?<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/354\/\">\u00a7 354<\/a>:<\/strong> 1. The Oriental realm: substantial unity. Only one is free (the ruler).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/355\/\">\u00a7 355<\/a>:<\/strong> 2. The Greek realm: beautiful freedom. Some are free (citizens, but slavery remains).<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/356\/\">\u00a7 356<\/a>:<\/strong> 3. The Roman realm: abstract right. The person is legally recognized, but under an abstract imperial will.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/357\/\">\u00a7 357<\/a>:<\/strong> 4. The Germanic realm: the Christian-European world. Spirit recognizes that all human beings are free in themselves.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/358\/\">\u00a7 358<\/a>:<\/strong> Reconciliation: the &#8216;Germanic principle&#8217; leads to the reconciliation of state and church, inwardness and world.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/359\/\">\u00a7 359<\/a>:<\/strong> The state as the image of reason: here spirit finds its abiding existence.<\/p>\n\n<p><strong><a href=\"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/360\/\">\u00a7 360<\/a>:<\/strong> The goal: in the philosophy of right, spirit returns to itself and comprehends its freedom as absolute truth.<\/p>\n\n\n<\/details>\n\n\n<div style=\"background-color: #f2f4f6; padding: 20px; border-radius: 8px; margin-top: 40px; border-left: 5px solid #abb7c2;\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-group\">\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\" style=\"margin-top: 0; padding-left: 20px;\">\n \t<li><mark class=\"has-inline-color\" style=\"background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0); color: #99a7af;\">CC. Philosophy of Absolute Spirit<\/mark>\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n \t<li style=\"font-style: normal; font-weight: 100; color: #99a7af;\">Art<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"font-style: normal; font-weight: 100; color: #99a7af;\">Religion<\/li>\n \t<li style=\"font-style: normal; font-weight: 100; color: #99a7af;\">Philosophy<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>A. Introduction to the System (Phenomenology of Spirit) B. Science of Logic C. Philosophy of Nature D. Philosophy of Spirit AA. Philosophy of Subjective Spirit BB. Philosophy of Objective Spirit =&gt; Groundlines of the Philosophy of Right Preface Introduction (\u00a7\u00a7 1\u201332) The concept of the will, of freedom, and of right. Part One: Abstract Right [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-4523","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4523","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4523"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4523\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":902252,"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4523\/revisions\/902252"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/grundlinien.de\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4523"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}